Rationing in the United Kingdom

Rationing was introduced temporarily by the British government several times during the 20th century, during and immediately after a war.[1][2]

Civilian rationing: A shopkeeper cancels the coupons in a British housewife's ration book in 1943

At the start of the Second World War in 1939, the United Kingdom was importing 20 million long tons of food per year, including about 70% of its cheese and sugar, almost 80% of fruit and about 70% of cereals and fats. The UK also imported more than half of its meat and relied on imported feed to support its domestic meat production. The civilian population of the country was about 50 million.[3] It was one of the principal strategies of the Germans in the Battle of the Atlantic to attack shipping bound for Britain, restricting British industry and potentially starving the nation into submission.

To deal with sometimes extreme shortages, the Ministry of Food instituted a system of rationing. To buy most rationed items, each person had to register at chosen shops and was provided with a ration book containing coupons. The shopkeeper was provided with enough food for registered customers. Purchasers had to present ration books (and money) with them when shopping so that the coupon or coupons could be cancelled as these pertained to rationed items.

First World War 1914–1918
Main article: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War
See also: UK population over time
A First World War government leaflet detailing the consequences of breaking the rationing laws

In line with its business as usual policy during the First World War, the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets.[4] It fought off attempts to introduce minimum prices in cereal production, though relenting in the area of control of essential imports (sugar, meat, and grains). When it did introduce changes, they were limited. In 1916, it became illegal to consume more than two courses while lunching in a public eating place or more than three for dinner; fines were introduced for members of the public found feeding the pigeons or stray animals.[5]

In January 1917, Germany started unrestricted submarine warfare to try to starve Britain into submission. To meet this threat, voluntary rationing was introduced in February 1917. Bread was subsidised from September that year; prompted by local authorities taking matters into their own hands, compulsory rationing was introduced in stages between December 1917 and February 1918 as Britain's supply of wheat decreased to just six weeks' consumption.[6] To help the process, ration books were introduced in July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar.[7] During the war, average energy intake decreased by only 3%, but protein intake by 6%.[8]

The General Strike 1926

The government made preparations to ration food in 1925, in advance of an expected general strike, and appointed Food Control Officers for each region. In the event, the Trades Unions of the London docks organized blockades by crowds, but convoys of lorries under military escort took the heart out of the strike, so that the measures did not have to be implemented.[9]

Second World War 1939–1945
See also: Minister of Food (United Kingdom)
Child's ration book, used during the Second World War

When the Second World War began in September 1939, petrol was the first commodity to be controlled. On 8 January 1940, bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. Meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, canned and dried fruit were rationed subsequently but not all at once. In June 1942, the Combined Food Board was set up by the United Kingdom and the United States to coordinate the world supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. Almost all foods apart from vegetables and bread were rationed by August 1942. Strict rationing inevitably created a black market. Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight but meat was rationed by price.

Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed, but supplies were limited. Some types of imported fruit all but disappeared. Lemons and bananas became unobtainable for most of the war; oranges continued to be sold, but greengrocers customarily reserved them for children and pregnant women who could prove their condition by producing their distinctive ration books. Other domestically grown fruit such as apples still appeared from time to time. However, sellers imposed their own restrictions so that customers were often not allowed to buy more than one apple each. Many grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by the highly successful "Dig for Victory" motivational campaign. In 1942, many children between ages five and seven years had become used to the wartime restrictions. When questioned about bananas, many did not believe such items existed.[10] Game meat such as rabbit and pigeon was not rationed but was not always available. Landed estate owners were able to enjoy game obtained on their property and share with their friends. A popular music-hall song, written 20 years previously but sung ironically, was "Yes! We Have No Bananas". During food rationing, British biologists ate laboratory rats.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

Poster for the "Dig for Victory" campaign, encouraging Britons to supplement their rations by cultivating gardens and allotments

Most controversial was bread, which was not rationed until after the war ended. The "national loaf" of wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety to the distaste of most housewives, who found it mushy, grey and easy to blame for digestion problems.[17] In May 1942, an order was passed that meals served in hotels and restaurants might not cost over five shillings per customer, might not be of more than three courses, and not more than one course might contain meat, fish or poultry. This was partly in response to increasing public concerns that "luxury" off-ration foodstuffs were being unfairly obtained by those who could afford to dine regularly in restaurants.[18]

Fish was not rationed, but prices increased considerably as the war progressed. The government initially did not ration fish, for fishermen, at risk from enemy attack, had to be paid a premium for their catch in order to fish at all, but prices were controlled from 1941.[19] Like other non-rationed items, fish was seldom available in abundance. Supplies dropped to 30% of pre-war levels,[19] and long queues built up at fishmongers and fish and chip shops. Wartime fish and chips was often felt to be below standard because of the low-quality fat available for frying.

Although alcoholic beverages like wine and whisky were not rationed, all drinks except beer were scarce, with many consumers self-rationing their own drinks cabinets. Beer in itself was considered a vital foodstuff as it was a morale booster. However, brewers had a shortage of labour due to many of their workers having been called up, making beer difficult to produce. Brewers also suffered the scarcity of the important imported barley in the beer-making process.[20] Likewise the ban on importing sugar for brewing and racketing made beer strengths weaker as brewers watered it down. The shortage of labour additionally caused problems for many pubs and bars, with many newspapers in the early years having many column inches of job ads for pubs as their regular staff were called up.[21]

As the war progressed, rationing was extended to other commodities such as clothing, which was rationed on a points system. When it was introduced, on 1 June 1941, no clothing coupons had been issued. At first, unused margarine coupons in ration books were valid for clothing. In the beginning, the allowance was enough for about one new outfit per year; as the war progressed, the points were reduced until buying a coat used almost a year's clothing coupons. On 1 July 1942, the basic civilian petrol ration, announced on 13 March 1942, was abolished[22] (Ivor Novello, a prominent British public figure in the entertainment industry, was sent to prison for four weeks for misusing petrol coupons). Henceforth, vehicle fuel was only available to official users, such as the emergency services, bus companies and farmers. The priority users of fuel were always, of course, the armed forces. Fuel supplied to approved users was dyed, and use of this fuel for non-essential purposes was an offence.

Certain foodstuffs that the 1940s British consumer would find unusual, for example whale meat and canned snoek fish from South Africa, were not rationed. Despite this, they did not prove popular.[2][23]

In addition to rationing, the government equalized the food supply through subsidies on items consumed by the poor and the working class. In 1942–43, £145 million was spent on food subsidies, including £35 million on bread, flour and oatmeal, £23  million on meat and the same on potatoes, £11 million on milk, and £13 million on eggs.[24]

Public catering
Main article: British Restaurant
A British Restaurant in London, 1943

Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing but this was resented, as people with more money could supplement their food rations by eating out frequently. In May 1942, the Ministry of Food issued new restrictions on restaurants:[25]

  • Meals were limited to three courses; only one component dish could contain fish or game or poultry (but not more than one of these)
  • In general, no meals could be served between 11:00 p.m. and 5:00 a.m. without a special licence
  • The maximum price of a meal was 5 shillings (equivalent to £12 in 2019). Extra charges allowed for cabaret shows and luxury hotels.

About 2,000 new wartime establishments called British Restaurants were run by local authorities in schools and church halls. Here a plain three-course meal cost only 9d (equivalent to £1.76 in 2019) and no ration coupons were required. They evolved from the London County Council's Londoners' Meals Service, which began as an emergency system for feeding people who had been blitzed out of their homes. They were open to all and mostly served office and industrial workers.[26][27]

Health effects
See also: UK population change

In December 1939, Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance of the University of Cambridge tested whether the United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers one egg, one pound (450 g) of meat and four ounces (110 g) of fish a week; one-quarter imperial pint (140 ml) of milk a day; four ounces (110 g) of margarine; and unlimited amounts of potatoes, vegetables and wholemeal bread. Two weeks of intensive outdoor exercise simulated the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects' health and performance remained very good after three months; the only negative results were the increased time needed for meals to consume the necessary calories from bread and potatoes, and what they described as a "remarkable" increase in flatulence from the large amount of starch in the diet. The scientists also noted that their faeces had increased by 250% in volume.[28]

The results – kept secret until after the war – gave the government confidence that, if necessary, food could be distributed equally to all, including high-value war workers, without causing widespread health problems. Britons' actual wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because imports from the United States avoided the U-boats,[28] but rationing improved the health of British people; infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose, excluding deaths caused by hostilities. This was because it ensured that everyone had access to a varied diet with enough vitamins.[27][29]

Standard rationing during the Second World War

The standard rations during the Second World War were as follows. Quantities are per week unless otherwise stated.[30]

Food rations
ItemMaximum levelMinimum levelApril 1945
Bacon and ham8 oz (227 g)4 oz (113 g)4 oz (113 g)
Sugar16 oz (454 g)8 oz (227 g)8 oz (227 g)
Loose tea4 oz (113 g)2 oz (57 g)2 oz (57 g)
Meat1 s. 2d.1s1s. 2d. (equivalent to £2.31 in 2016)[a 1]
Cheese8 oz (227 g)1 oz (28 g)2 oz (57 g)

Vegetarians were allowed an extra 3 oz (85 g) cheese[31]

Preserves1 lb (0.45 kg) per month
2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade		8 oz (227 g) per month2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) preserve
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) sugar
Butter8 oz (227 g)2 oz (57 g)2 oz (57 g)
Margarine12 oz (340 g)4 oz (113 g)4 oz (113 g)
Lard3 oz (85 g)2 oz (57 g)2 oz (57 g)
Sweets16 oz (454 g) per month8 oz (227 g) per month12 oz (340 g) per month

Army and Merchant Navy rations
Item Army Rations Home Service Scale Seamen on weekly articles
Men Women
Meat 5 lb 4 oz (2.4 kg) 2 lb 10 oz (1.2 kg) 2 lb 3 oz (0.99 kg)
Bacon and ham
(uncooked, free of bone)		 8 oz (230 g) 9 oz (260 g) 8 oz (230 g)
Butter and margarine 13 1⁄4 oz (380 g) (in any proportions of butter and margarine) 10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) (margarine only) 10 1⁄2 oz (300 g)
(not more than 3 1⁄2 oz (99 g) butter)
Cheese 4 oz (110 g) 4 oz (110 g) 4 oz (110 g)
Cooking fats 2 oz (57 g) (may be taken in the form of margarine) – –
Sugar 1 lb 14 oz (850 g) 14 oz (400 g) 14 oz (400 g)
Tea 4 oz (110 g) 2 oz (57 g) 2 oz (57 g))
Preserves
  • 8 oz (230 g) jam
  • 2 oz (57 g) syrup
  • (10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) for boys and young soldiers battalions)
    (jam, marmalade or syrup)
 7 oz (200 g)
jam, marmalade or syrup)		 10 1⁄2 oz (300 g)
(jam, marmalade, syrup)

[32][33]

1s 2d bought about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g) of meat. Offal and sausages were rationed only from 1942 to 1944. When sausages were not rationed, the meat needed to make them was so scarce that they often contained a high proportion of bread. Eggs were rationed and "allocated to ordinary consumers as available"; in 1944 thirty allocations of one egg each were made. Children and some invalids were allowed three a week; expectant mothers two on each allocation.

  • 1 egg per week or 1 packet (makes 12 ersatz eggs) of egg powder per month (vegetarians were allowed two eggs)
  • plus, 24 points for four weeks for tinned and dried food.

Arrangements were made for vegetarians so that other goods were substituted for their rations of meat.[31]

Milk was supplied at 3 imp pt (1.7 l) each week with priority for expectant mothers and children under 5; 3.5 imp pt (2.0 l) for those under 18; children unable to attend school 5 imp pt (2.8 l), certain invalids up to 14 imp pt (8.0 l). Each consumer received one tin of milk powder (equivalent to 8 imperial pints or 4.5 litres) every eight weeks.[34]

Special civilian rations

Persons falling within the following descriptions were allowed 8 oz (230 g) of cheese a week in place of the general ration of 3 oz (85 g):

  • vegetarians (meat and bacon coupons must be surrendered)
  • underground mine workers
  • agricultural workers holding unemployment insurance books or cards bearing stamps marked "Agriculture"
  • county roadmen
  • forestry workers (including fellers and hauliers)
  • land drainage workers (including Catchment Board workers)
  • members of the Auxiliary Force of the Women's Land Army[33]
  • railway train crews (including crews of shunting engines but not including dining car staffs)
  • railway signalmen and permanent way men who have not access to canteen facilities
  • certain types of agricultural industry workers (workers employed on threshing machines, tractor workers who are not included in the Agricultural Unemployment Insurance Stamp Scheme, hay pressers and trussers).

Weekly supplementary allowances of rationed foods for invalids
Disease Food
supplementary
allowance		 Quantity Coupons to be
surrendered
Diabetes Butter and margarine 12 oz (340 g) (not more than 4 oz (110 g) butter) Sugar
Diabetes Meat 2s. 4d., adult 1s, 2d., child under six Sugar
Diabetes – vegetarians only Cheese 8 oz (230 g) Sugar
Hypoglycaemia Sugar 16 oz (450 g) –
Steatorrhoea Meat 4s. 8d. adult, 2s. 4d. child under six Butter and margarine
Nephritis with gross
albuminuria and gross oedema,
also nephrosis		 Meat 3s. 6d. adult, 1s. 9d. child under six

Clothing

Clothing rationing was announced on 1 June 1941. A major cause was the increased need for clothing materials to be utilized for producing uniforms. By this point in the war, one fourth of the population was wearing uniforms. Many of the female population who needed uniforms were part of the women's auxiliary forces. There were also a lot of volunteer services and organizations. The materials to make tarpaulins and tyres were heavily affected by this rationing. It also became difficult for civilians to get shoes and boots.

Another major part of rationing was the implementation of a coupon system. There were 66 points for clothing per year; in 1942 it was cut to 48, in 1943 to 36, and in 1945 to 24. This system operated through a "points" system. Clothing was ranked and based on this ranking, civilians would be able to purchase clothing. Clothing rationing points could also be used for wool, cotton and household textiles. Before rationing, lace and frills were popular on knickers, but these were soon banned so that material could be saved. The number of points that each piece of clothing would be valued at was determined by not only how much labor went into making it, but also how much material was used. A dress could run someone 11 coupons, whereas a pair of stockings only cost 2. Similarly, Men's shoes cost 7 tickets, while women's cost only 5. In 1945, an overcoat (wool and fully lined) was 18 coupons; a man's suit, 26–29 (according to lining); Children aged 14–16 got 20 more coupons.

When purchasing clothing, not only did civilians need to have coupons, but they also had to purchase things with money. No points were required for second-hand clothing or fur coats, but their prices were fixed. People had extra points for work clothes, such as overalls for factory work.[35] Manual workers, civilian uniform wearers, diplomats, performers and new mothers also received extra coupons.

The civilian population was encouraged to repair and remake old clothes by pamphlets produced by the Ministry of Information, with the slogan 'Make Do and Mend'.[36][37] Stockings, which were popularly worn by women before the war, were difficult to obtain, because the silk required to make them was needed to make parachutes. Many substituted by painting their legs and drawing a line at the back to give the appearance of stockings.

From March to May 1942, clothing austerity measures were introduced which restricted the number of buttons, pockets and pleats (among other things) on clothes.[38]

Clothes rationing ended on 15 March 1949.

Soap

All types of soap were rationed. Coupons were allotted by weight or (if liquid) by quantity. In 1945, the ration gave four coupons each month; babies and some workers and invalids were allowed more.[38] A coupon would yield:

  • 4 oz (113 g) bar hard soap
  • 3 oz (85 g) bar toilet soap
  • 1⁄2 oz (14 g) No. 1 liquid soap
  • 6 oz (170 g) soft soap
  • 3 oz (85 g) soap flakes
  • 6 oz (170 g) powdered soap

Fuel

The Fuel and Lighting (Coal) Order 1941 came into force in January 1942. Central heating was prohibited "in the summer months".[38] Domestic coal was rationed to 15 long hundredweight (1,680 lb; 762.0 kg) for those in London and the south of England; 20 long hundredweight (2,240 lb; 1,016 kg) for the rest (the southern part of England having generally a milder climate).[38] Some kinds of coal such as anthracite were not rationed, and in the coal-mining areas were eagerly gathered as they were in the Great Depression (see The Road to Wigan Pier).

Petrol

Petrol rationing was introduced in September 1939 with an allowance of approximately 200 miles of motoring per month. The coupons issued related to a car's calculated RAC horsepower and that horsepower's nominal fuel consumption. From July 1942 until June 1945, the basic ration was suspended completely, with essential-user coupons being issued only to those with official sanction. In June 1945, the basic ration was restored to allow about 150 miles per month; this was increased in August 1945 to allow about 180 miles per month.[39]

Paper

Newspapers were limited from September 1939, at first to 60% of their pre-war consumption of newsprint. Paper supply came under the No 48 Paper Control Order, 4 September 1942, and was controlled by the Ministry of Production. By 1945, newspapers were limited to 25% of their pre-war consumption. Wrapping paper for most goods was prohibited.[40]

The paper shortage often made it more difficult than usual for authors to get work published. In 1944, George Orwell wrote:

In Mr Stanley Unwin's recent pamphlet Publishing in Peace and War, some interesting facts are given about the quantities of paper allotted by the Government for various purposes. Here are the present figures:

Newspapers 250,000 tons
H.M. Stationery Office 100,000 tons
Periodicals (nearly) 50,000 tons
Books 22,000 tons

A particularly interesting detail is that out of the 100,000 tons allotted to the Stationery Office, the War Office gets no less than 25,000 tons, or more than the whole of the book trade put together. ... At the same time paper for books is so short that even the most hackneyed "classic" is liable to be out of print, many schools are short of textbooks, new writers get no chance to start and even established writers have to expect a gap of a year or two years between finishing a book and seeing it published.

— George Orwell, "As I Please", Tribune, 20 October 1944

[41][42]

Other products

Whether rationed or not, many consumer goods became difficult to obtain because of the shortage of components. Examples included razor blades, baby bottles, alarm clocks, frying pans and pots. Balloons and sugar for cakes for birthday parties were partially or completely unavailable. Couples had to use a mock cardboard and plaster wedding cake in lieu of a real tiered wedding cake, with a smaller cake hidden in the mock cake. [43] Many fathers saved bits of wood to build toys for Christmas presents,[44] and Christmas trees were almost impossible to obtain due to timber rationing.[45]

Post-Second World War 1945-1954

On 8 May 1945, the Second World War ended in Europe, but rationing continued. Some aspects of rationing became stricter for some years after the war. At the time, this was presented as needed to feed people in European areas under British control, whose economies had been devastated by the fighting.[2] This was partly true, but with many British men still mobilised in the armed forces, an austere economic climate, and a centrally-planned economy under the post-war Labour government, resources were not available to expand food production and food imports. Frequent strikes by some workers (most critically dock workers) made things worse.[2] A common ration book fraud was the ration books of the dead being kept and used by the living.[22]

Political reaction

In the late 1940s, the Conservative Party exploited and incited growing public anger at rationing, scarcity, controls, austerity and government bureaucracy. They used the dissatisfaction with the socialistic and egalitarian policies of the Labour Party to rally middle-class supporters and build a political comeback that won the 1951 general election. Their appeal was especially effective to housewives, who faced more difficult shopping conditions after the war than during it.[46]

Timeline
Food rationing ends Conservative poster

1945
  • 27 May: Bacon ration cut from 4 to 3 ounces (113 to 85 g) per week. Cooking fat ration cut from 2 to 1 ounce (57 to 28 g) per week. Soap ration cut by an eighth, except for babies and young children.[47] The referenced newspaper article predicted that households would be grossly hampered in making food items that included pastry.
  • 1 June: The basic petrol ration for civilians was restored.[22][39]
  • 19 July: In order to preserve the egalitarian nature of rationing, gift food parcels from overseas weighing more than 5 lb (2.3 kg) would be deducted from the recipient's ration.

1946
  • Summer: Continual rain ruined Britain's wheat crop. Bread rationing started.

1947
  • January–March: Winter of 1946–1947 in the United Kingdom: long hard frost and deep snow. Frost destroyed a huge amount of stored potatoes. Potato rationing started.
  • Mid-year: A transport and dock strike, which among other effects caused much loss of imported meat left to rot on the docks, until the Army broke the strike. The basic petrol ration was stopped.[22][39]

1948

Later
  • May 1949: Clothes rationing ended. According to one author,[22] this was because attempts to enforce it were defeated by continual massive illegality (black market, unofficial trade in loose clothing coupons (many forged), bulk thefts of unissued clothes ration books).
  • June, July and August 1949: The basic petrol ration was temporarly increased to allow about 180 miles per month.[39]
  • 23 February 1950: The 1950 general election is fought largely on the issue of rationing. The Conservative Party campaigned on a manifesto of ending rationing as quickly as possible.[2] The Labour Party argued for the continuation of rationing indefinitely. Labour was returned, but with its majority badly slashed to 5 seats.
  • March 1950: The Ministry of Fuel and Power announce that the petrol ration will again be doubled for the months of June, July and August.[39]
  • April 1950: The Ministry of Fuel and Power announce that the petrol ration will be doubled for 12 months from 1 June.[39]
  • 26 May 1950: Petrol rationing ended.[49]
  • 25 October 1951: 1951 United Kingdom general election. The Conservatives came back into power.
  • 4 February 1953: Confectionery (sweets and chocolate) rationing ended.[50][51] [52]
  • September 1953: Sugar rationing ended.
  • 4 July 1954: Meat and all other food rationing ended in Britain.[53]

Although rationing formally ended in 1954, cheese production remained depressed for decades afterwards. During rationing, most milk in Britain was used to make one kind of cheese, nicknamed Government Cheddar (not to be confused with the government cheese issued by the US welfare system).[54] This wiped out nearly all other cheese production in the country, and some indigenous varieties of cheese almost disappeared.[54] Later government controls on milk prices through the Milk Marketing Board continued to discourage production of other varieties of cheese until well into the 1980s,[55] and it was only in the mid-1990s (following the effective abolition of the MMB) that the revival of the British cheese industry began in earnest.

Suez Crisis 1956–1957

Petrol rationing was briefly reintroduced in late 1956 during the Suez Crisis but ended again on 14 May 1957.[56] Advertising of petrol on the recently introduced ITV was banned for a period.

Oil crises of 1973 and 1979

Petrol coupons were issued for a short time as preparation for the possibility of petrol rationing during the 1973 oil crisis. The rationing never came about, in large part because increasing North Sea oil production allowed the UK to offset much of the lost imports. By the time of the 1979 energy crisis, the United Kingdom had become a net exporter of oil, so on that occasion the government did not even have to consider petrol rationing.

See also

References
  1. Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina (2002), Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls and Consumption, 1939–1955, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925102-5
  2. Kynaston, David (2007), Austerity Britain, 1945–1951, Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0-7475-7985-4
  3. Macrory, Ian (2010). Annual Abstract of Statistics (PDF) (2010 ed.). Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  4. Hurwitz, Samuel J. (2013). State Intervention in Great Britain: Study of Economic Control and Social Response, 1914–1919. pp. 12–29. ISBN 978-1-136-93186-4.
  5. Ian Beckett, The Home Front 1914–1918: How Britain Survived the Great War (2006) p. 381
  6. John Morrow, The Great War: An Imperial History (2005) p. 202
  7. Alan Warwick Palmer and Veronica Palmer, The chronology of British history (1992) pp. 355–356
  8. Beckett, The Home Front 1914–1918 pp. 380–382
  9. Hancock, William Keith; Gowing, Margaret (1975). British War Economy. History of the Second World War. 1 (rev. ed.). Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 52. OCLC 874487495.
  10. Reagan, Geoffrey. Military Anecdotes (1992) pp. 19 & 20. Guinness Publishing ISBN 0-85112-519-0
  11. Jared M. Diamond (January 2006). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail Or Succeed. Penguin. pp. 105–. ISBN 978-0-14-303655-5.
  12. David E. Lorey (2003). Global Environmental Challenges of the Twenty-first Century: Resources, Consumption, and Sustainable Solutions. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 210–. ISBN 978-0-8420-5049-4.
  13. David G. McComb (1 September 1997). Annual Editions: World History. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-697-39293-0.
  14. Peacock, Kent Alan (1996). Living with the earth: an introduction to environmental philosophy. Harcourt Brace Canada. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7747-3377-9.
  15. Spears, Deanne (2003). Improving Reading Skills: Contemporary Readings for College Students. McGraw-Hill. p. 463. ISBN 978-0-07-283070-5.
  16. Sovereignty, Colonialism and the Indigenous Nations: A Reader. Carolina Academic Press. 2005. p. 772. ISBN 978-0-89089-333-3.
  17. Calder, Angus (1992). The people's war: Britain 1939–45 (New ed.). Pimlico. pp. 276–77. ISBN 978-0-7126-5284-1.
  18. "British food control". Army News. Darwin, Australia: Trove. 14 May 1942.
  19. Fisheries in War Time: Report on the Sea Fisheries of England and Wales by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries for the Years 1939–1944 Inclusive. H.M. Stationery Office. 1946.
  20. "Beer Goes to War". All About Beer. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  21. morningadvertiser.co.uk. "How the pub survived the World Wars". morningadvertiser.co.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  22. Nicol, Patricia (2010). Sucking Eggs. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780099521129.
  23. Patten, Marguerite (2005). Feeding the Nation. Hamlyn. ISBN 978-0-600-61472-2.
  24. Keesing's Contemporary Archives. IV–V. June 1943. p. 5,805.
  25. Keesing's Contemporary Archives. IV. June 1942. p. 5,224.
  26. Home Front Handbook, p. 78.
  27. Creaton, Heather J. (1998). "5. Fair Shares: Rationing and Shortages". Sources for the History of London 1939–45: Rationing. British Records Association. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-0-900222-12-2. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  28. Dawes, Laura (24 September 2013). "Fighting fit: how dietitians tested if Britain would be starved into defeat". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  29. "Wartime rationing helped the British get healthier than they had ever been". Medical News Today. 21 June 2004. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  30. Home Front Handbook, pp. 46–47.
  31. Courtney, Tina (April 1992). "Veggies at war". The Vegetarian. Vegetarian Society. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  32. Home Front Handbook, p. 46.
  33. "Rationed Foodstuffs". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 374. UK Parliament: House of Commons. 30 September 1941. col. 473–5W. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  34. Home Front Handbook, p. 47.
  35. Home Front Handbook, pp. 47–48.
  36. Clouting, Laura (11 January 2018). "10 Top Tips for Winning at Make Do and Mend". Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
  37. "Make Do and Mend – 1943". British Library. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
  38. Home Front Handbook, p. 48.
  39. "The World of Motoring - The End of Rationing". The Motor. London: Temple Press Ltd: 564. 7 June 1950.
  40. Home Front Handbook, pp. 50–51.
  41. Orwell, George (20 October 1944). "As I Please". Tribune.
  42. Unwin, Stanley (1944). Publishing in Peace and War. George Allen and Unwin. OCLC 9407037.
  43. "Decorated wedding cakes in WW2 shortages". www.1900s.org.uk. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  44. Mackay, Robert (2002). Half the Battle: Civilian Morale in Britain during the Second World War. Manchester University Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN 0-7190-5893-7.
  45. Webley, Nicholas (2003). A Taste of Wartime Britain. Thorogood. p. 36. ISBN 1-85418-213-7.
  46. Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, "Rationing, austerity and the Conservative party recovery after 1945", Historical Journal (1994) 37#1 pp. 173–197
  47. The Daily Telegraph 23 May 1945, reprinted on page 34 of Daily Telegraph Saturday 23 May 2015
  48. Mills, T. O. (1949). "22 Police Journal 1949 Motor Spirit (Regulation) Act, 1948, The". Police Journal. 22: 280. doi:10.1177/0032258X4902200407.
  49. "1950: UK drivers cheer end of fuel rations". BBC News. 26 May 1950. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
  50. "Ration and price control of chocolates and sweets ends as from to-day, the Food Minister told the House of Commons this afternoon." Sweets are now off-ration. Aberdeen, Scotland: Evening Express. 4 February 1953. Page 1, col. 5.
  51. "Immediately after the surprise announcement yesterday by the Minister of Food that sweets rationing "will end today", an Evening News reporter went out to buy himself half-pound box of chocolates." Sweets. All you want, and no bother. Shields Daily News. Thursday, 5 February 1953. Page 4, col. 4.
  52. FROM OUR POLITICAL CORRESPONDENT: "Answering questions by Sir Ian Fraser (C. Morecambe and Lonsdale) and Mr Kenneth Thompson (C. Walton) the Minister of Food announced that the rationing and price control of chocolate and sugar confectionary ends to-day." Sweets off the ration. Liverpool, England. Liverpool Echo. Wednesday, 04 February 1953. Page 6.
  53. "1954: Housewives celebrate end of rationing". BBC. 4 July 1954. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
  54. "Government Cheddar Cheese". CooksInfo.com. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  55. Potter, Mich (9 October 2007). "Cool Britannia rules the whey". Toronto Star. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
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Further reading
  • Beckett, Ian F. W. The Home Front 1914–1918: How Britain Survived the Great War (2006).
  • Hammond, R. J. Food and agriculture in Britain, 1939–45: Aspects of wartime control (Food, agriculture, and World War II) (Stanford U.P. 1954); summary of his three volume official history entitled Food (1951–53)
  • Home Front Handbook. Imperial War Museum (Ministry of Information). 2005 [1945]. ISBN 1-904897-11-8.
  • Sitwell, William (2016). Eggs or Anarchy? The Remarkable Story of the Man Tasked with the Impossible: To Feed a Nation at War. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4711-5105-7.
  • Smith, Daniel (2011). The Spade as Mighty as the Sword: The Story of World War Two's Dig for Victory Campaign. Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-617-8.
  • Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina. Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls & Consumption, 1939–1955 (2000) 286 pp. online
  • Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina. "Rationing, austerity and the Conservative party recovery after 1945", Historical Journal (1994) 37#1 pp. 173–97 in JSTOR

Notes
  1. Using the retail price index of equivalent worth in 1945. Source: measuringworth.com
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