Rembrandt's Mughal drawings

In his late career in the 1650s, the Dutch artist Rembrandt created drawings that were inspired by miniatures from Mughal India. This was the only time the artist engaged with the artistic style of a "dramatically foreign culture".[1] They depict Mughal emperors, noblemen, courtiers, and sometimes women and common folk. They were executed on expensive Asian or Japanese paper, and only 23 drawings survive today.

Shah Jahan (Mughal Emperor) by Rembrandt van Rijn, c. 1656-1661
Jujhar Singh Bundela Kneels in Submission to Shah Jahan by Bichitra, c. 1630
A Rembrandt Drawing Inspired by a Mughal Miniature

The early-1600s witnessed a growth in trade between Mughal India and the Dutch East India Company, and many artists, including Rembrandt, were exposed to Indian objects and works of art for the first time. Rembrandt's Mughal drawings were a result of this cultural exchange that occurred due to global trade.[2]

The drawings are not strictly copies of Mughal paintings, and it is not known whether they were intended for personal use or were commissions. This departure in his oeuvre has been interpreted as Rembrandt's way of reinventing himself as an artist during a low point in his late career, when he faced bankruptcy. In 2005, Dr. Marian Bisanz-Prakken of Albertina wrote: "It is supposed that Rembrandt's creative examination of the Mughal miniatures may have exerted some influence on the pen and wash style of his late drawings."[3]

History and context

Once the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602, Amsterdam witnessed the growth of an international market where goods from across the world were traded. Rembrandt benefitted from this global exposure that enabled him to buy "drawings and prints from the principal masters of the whole world". His inventory included Chinese, Turkish and Mughal Indian artefacts. The latter was the inspiration for his late-career Mughal drawings, which marked a significant departure from his usual style and subjects.[4][5]

In 1656, following Rembrandt's bankruptcy, an inventory of his possessions showed that he owned an album of "curious miniature drawings", which are believed to be Indian Mughal miniatures. Stephanie Schrader, who curated Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India and has extensively studied the drawings, states that Rembrandt's creation of these drawings at this low point in his career could have been a way of re-establishing himself as an artist who is aware of prevailing international styles.[6]

The first public record comes from a 1747 sale catalogue of Jonathan Richardson that states: "A book of Indian Drawings, by Rembrandt, 25 in number." Rembrandt is believed to have made many drawings after contemporary Indian paintings and miniatures, but only 23 survive today. The exact sources for the drawings are not known. Whether these were commissioned or meant for personal use is not verifiable either.[3]

Style and technique

Rembrandt's drawings were not strict imitations of Mughal works. Although Indian miniatures were executed in rich colours, Rembrandt's drawings take a more restrained approach, focusing more on the shape of the figures and their "exotic" facial features and attire. He also introduced perspective and shading, elements not found in Mughal miniatures. Unlike the miniatures, which were often in profile, the drawings convey a sense of movement and make apparent the distribution of body weight.[6]

While most of the drawings depict Indian royalty or noblemen, a few represent the common people or women.[7] All drawings are made on 'Asian paper', which was then imported by the Dutch East India Company and highly prized. Rembrandt's use of expensive paper has been interpreted as him holding the subject matter in high regard.[6]

List of 23 extant drawings

No.ImageTitleYearTechniqueDimensionsGalleryCommentary
1Emperor Akbar and his Son Selim in Apotheosisc. 1656Pen and brown ink, brown wash and white gouache on Japan paperHeight: 21.2 cm (8.3 in); Width: 17.4 cm (6.8 in)Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Netherlands
2A Mughal nobleman on horsebackc. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with brown and grey wash, touched with red and yellow chalk and white heightening and with some scraping-out, on oriental paper; the lance drawn with a ruler.Height: 205 mm (8.07 in); Width: 177 mm (6.96 in)British Museum, England
3A Deccani nobleman standingc. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with grey and brown wash and scraping-out on oriental paper prepared with pale brown wash.Height: 196 millimetres; Width: 158 millimetresBritish Museum, England
4A Medallion Portrait of Muhammad Adil Shah of Bijapur, Rembrandtc. 1656-61Pen, Brown Ink, And Brown Wash On Japan PaperHeight: 97mm; Width: 76mmFine Arts Museum of San Francisco, United States
5A Mughal Nobleman standing (Prince Daniyal)c. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with grey and brown wash, touched with red chalk (in the turban) and white heightening, on Asian paperHeight: 184 millimetres; Width: 112 millimetresBritish Museum, England
6Four Mullahs Seated under a Treec. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with brown and grey wash, touched with white and with some scraping-out, on Asian paper prepared with pale brown washHeight: 194 millimetres; Width: 124 millimetresBritish Museum, England
7Indian archerc. 1656-58Pen and brown ink, with brown, grey, and light brown wash and opaque white, on Japanese paper toned with light brown wash; later additions in pen and brown ink; framing line in grey ink, h: 188mm × w: 131mmRijksmuseum
8Indian Ruler (Shah Shuja')c. 1656-61Brown ink and brown wash on Asian paper toned with light brown washHeight: 23 cm; Width: 18 cmAlbertina Museum, Austria
9Indian Warrior with a Shieldc. 1654-56Pen and brown ink and wash, with red chalk wash, black chalk and scraping (correction), on Japanese paperHeight: 178 ; Width: 100 mmMorgan Library & Museum, United States
10Portrait of Aurangzebc. 1655Brown ink, brown wash, black chalk and white opaque watercolor on Asian paper; later additions in gray wash and scratchwork, framing line in brown ink, mounted overallHeight: 18cm; Width: 7.3 cmHarvard Art Museums, United States
11Portrait of Jahangirc. 1656-58Pen and brown ink, with brown, pink, and grey wash, on Japanese paper toned with light brown wash; framing line in brown inkHeight: 183 mm; Width: 120 mmRijksmuseum, Netherlands
12Portrait of Shah Jahanc. 1656-68Pen and brown ink, with brown wash and opaque white, on Japanese paper toned with light brown washHeight: 69 mm; Width: 71 mmRijksmuseum, Netherlands
13An Indian Ladyc. 1656Pen and brown ink on paperHeight: 7.9 cm (3.1 in); Width: 7.2 cm (2.8 in)Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Netherlands
14Shah Jahan and Dara Shikohc. 1656-61Brown ink and gray wash with scratchwork on Japanese paper prepared with pale brown washHeight:21.3 cm; Width: 17.8 cmJ. Paul Getty Museum, United States
15Shah Jahan and his Sonc. 1656-58pen and brown ink, with brown wash, on Japanese paper toned with light brown washh 94 mm × w 86 mmRijksmuseum, Netherlands
16Shah Jahanc. 1656-61Pen and brown ink and brush and brown washHeight: 22.5; Width: 17.1 cmCleveland Museum of Art, United States
17Shah Jahan, Standing with a Flower and a Sword c. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with brown wash on Asiatic paperHeight: 17.8 cm; Width: 10.1 cmFondation Custodia, France
18Two Indian Noblemenc. 1654-56Pen and brown ink and wash, with red chalk wash, yellow watercolor, white opaque watercolor, black chalk and scraping on Japanese paperHeight: 191 mm; Width: 234 mmMorgan Library & Museum, United States
19Two Mughal noblemen (Shah Jahan and Dara Shikoh)c. 1656-61Pen and brown ink with brown and grey wash, touched with white and with scraping-out, on Asian paper prepared with pale brown washHeight: 172 mm; Width: 214 mmBritish Museum, England
20Image required (Private collection)Two Heads of Women after an Indian Paintingc. 1656-61Brown ink and brown wash on Asian paperHeight: 6.8 cm ; Width: 9.4 cmNicolas Joly Art Conseil, Paris
21Emperor Jahāngīr receiving an Officerc. 1656-61Pen and brown ink, with brown and grey wash, touched with white, on oriental paperHeight: 210 mm; Width: 184 mmBritish Museum, England
22Emperor Timur on his throne, after an Indian miniaturec. 1656-61Pen and ink on oriental paperHeight: 186 mm; Width: 187 mmMusee du Louvre, France

Notes

  • The information on the extant drawings are sourced from the exhibition catalogue of Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India, J. Paul Getty Museum.
  1. Timothy Potts, director of J. Paul Getty Museum, writing in the exhibition catalogue of Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India, Foreword, p. vii: "These drawings mark a striking diversion for this quintessentially Dutch "Golden Age artist, the only time he confronted and engaged with the art of a dramatically foreign culture."
  2. Schrader, Stephanie; et al. (eds.): Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India. (Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2018) ISBN 978-1-60606-552-5
  3. Bisanz-Prakken 2005, p. 100
  4. "In Paintings: Rembrandt & his Mughal India Inspiration". 2017-09-03. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  5. Ganz, James (2013). Rembrandt's Century. San Francisco, CA: Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. p. 45. ISBN 9783791352244.
  6. https://asianartnewspaper.com/rembrandt-and-the-mughals/
  7. "Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India (catalogue)" (PDF). Retrieved 18 October 2019.

Bibliography

  • Bisanz-Prakken, Marian (2005). Rembrandt and His Time: Masterworks from the Albertina, Vienna. Los Angeles: Hudson Hills. ISBN 978-1555952570.
  • Filipczak, Zirka Z. (2007). "Rembrandt and the Body Language of Mughal Miniatures". Netherlands Yearbook for History of Art / Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek. 58 (1): 162–187. doi:10.1163/22145966-90000746.
  • Robinson, William (2018). Rembrandt's “Indian Drawings” and His Later Work. New York: Morgan Library & Museum.
  • Schrader, Stephanie, ed. (2018). Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 978-1-60606-552-5.
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