Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus

A self-depiction by the Muslims in Iberia. Taken from the Tale of Bayad and Riyad.

In Al-Andalus, Muslims were divided into three distinct ethnic groups. The largest group was the Berbers.[3] It is important to note that these Berbers, which mostly came from North Africa, were mostly sedentary in lifestyle, not to be confused with the Nomadic Berbers found in roughly the same geographic region of North Africa. In terms of social class, after the invasion, Berbers mostly went on to form the rural proletariat, although a number of them went to the cities, mostly working to pursue crafts. In terms of religion the Berbers were all Muslims, their ancestors having converted mostly to share in the wealth of Arab conquests.

The second group of Muslims found in Al-Andalus was the Arabs. They formed a relatively small section of Al-Andalus’ total population. They tended to have a higher economic position in society and constituted the majority of the ruling class. They owned land in the richest parts of the country. The most important cultural elements they brought with them were their language and the Arabic tradition of learning and high culture, which emulated that which could be found in Caliphate of Damascus.

However, the actual amount of culture these Arab invaders actually brought with them has been disputed by some historians. Historian W. Montgomery Watt argues that the ancestors of the Arabs that came to invade the Iberian Peninsula had been living a very rough life in the Steppes of Arabia, thus the actual invaders had little time to acquire a high level of culture.[4] These Arab and Berber invaders were also busy consolidating their control, having little time and money to devote to purposefully spreading culture to the newly conquered regions. The Iberian Umayyad golden age was also, in part, a result of its geographic location and relative isolation from the central part of the Arabian empire. These Umayyad rulers felt the need to prove that they were the equals of those in the homeland. This was combined with their need to prove their worth as an independent region. It can thus be concluded that the invading Arabs brought some level of culture to the peninsula, but the high culture that was achieved during the golden age of Al-Andalus was the result of the combination and growth of the multiple cultures present in the geographic area.

The Muwallads, or Muslims of Iberian descent, were far more numerous than those of purely Arabic descent. They were composed of those descended from the marriages of the original invading Arabs to the native women of Iberia along with those who converted to Islam by choice since the invasions. The muwallads adopted Arabic genealogies and thus became further fused to the Arabs ethnically over time. By the 10th century, no clear distinction existed between the muwallads and the Arab Muslims and by the 10th century, Muslims represented about 80% of the total population of Al-Andalus, including Christian converts and the Berber Muslims.

The Christians living in Al-Andalus, both before and after the invasion, were the Visigoths, Hispano-Romans, and the native tribes of the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths and the Hispano-Romans formed the noble class prior to the Arab-Berber invasion. The Christian population as a whole was predominantly Catholic, although some Paganism and Arianism still persisted in some areas, mixing with the Catholic tradition.

Under the Christian Visigoth rule, a tradition of learning had been established at Seville by Isidore (636 AD).[5] Over time, Seville became one of the leading intellectual centers of Christian Europe. This Isidorian tradition seems to have been abandoned in favor of the Arabic tradition, although it undoubtedly played a role in the further development of the Arabic tradition on the peninsula.

After the Muslim invasion, the Christians were classified under Islamic law as dhimmis (protected peoples). This status allowed them to practice their religion freely under the Umayyad dynasty. Christians were allowed to maintain many of their churches and the organization of the Church remained mostly intact, with the exception of the confiscation of many Catholic properties.[6] Bishops and other high ranking church officials had to be approved by the Caliphate before they could take office.

Although culturally many Christians adopted the Arabic tradition, the cultural tradition of the Catholic Church and the culture that had developed under the Visigoths was maintained in monasteries by monks. The strong monastic tradition throughout the southern portion of the Iberian Peninsula continued to flourish and develop under Muslim rule. Within the cities, some Christians were able to rise to prominent positions within the Umayyad bureaucracy.

One example is of a Christian with the adopted name of [Abu Umar ibn Gundislavus], who became vizier under Abd al-Rahman III. Another example being, Revemund, a Christian who was a secretary under the same ruler and was later sent as an ambassador to Germany in 955–6. He eventually became the bishop of Elvira. It is also important to note that Christian artisans, especially from the Eastern Roman Empire, were called to work on various building projects in the Caliphate of Cordoba. Some of these artisans remained integrated into Andalusian society. Although Christians lost the absolute dominant status they had previously experienced in Iberia, they were still able to gain positions of prominence under Muslim rule, however, these conditions deteriorated with the Almoravids and Almohads (see Restrictions Imposed on Christians and Jews).

Jews formed an iota, yet significant ethnic minority in the Iberian Peninsula, constituting about 5% of the total population in Al-Andalus. They began to settle in the Iberian Peninsula in significant numbers around the 1st century AD. Under Christian Visigothic rule, Jews faced persecution. In 613, the Visigothic King Sisebut issued a decree which forced Jews to convert to Christianity or be exiled and have their property confiscated. It comes as no surprise that many Jews welcomed their Muslim rulers and saw the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula as deliverance. After the conquest, under Islamic law, Jews were also categorized as dhimmis, having the same social standing as Christians. The Jewish communities scattered throughout the rural areas of Al-Andalus remained fairly isolated, however Jews living in cities and towns, like those in Cordoba that became integrated into Islamic culture and society.

Jews came to hold very influential positions in the Umayyad bureaucracy. One example is the Jewish scholar and physician Hasdai ibn Shaprut, who served as a diplomat of the Umayyad government. Many Jews living in the cities also became involved in trade as merchants. Under the Caliphate of Cordoba, Jews experienced [A Golden Age of Jewish Culture] within Spain, in which Jewish scholars, philosophers, and poets prospered. Jews also contributed to the scientific and mathematic fields of study prominent in Cordoba at this time. Overall, Jews were granted better treatment, with the coming of the Muslims invaders, than they had previously experience under Christian rule. Conditions deteriorated under Almoravid and Almohad rule (see Restrictions Imposed on Christians and Jews).

Moorish architecture of the praying hall.

Interior of the synagogue.

A casket made of ivory with carved decoration and engraved silver demonstrating traditional Islamic art.

It is important to note that a distinction between Islamic art and architecture is not important since the two are often tied together. Muslim art is limited, in a sense, by Islamic religious dogmas that frown upon the glorification of human being or animals in the form of art. Thus Muslim art tends to avert from depicting people or animals in art. The art of Al-Andalus had a distinctly Arabic and Islamic inspired flavour, and manifested itself mostly in sculptures and mosaics, as well as, other artefacts that served a dual purpose besides that of being aesthetically pleasing. What made these works distinctly Andalusian was the combination of various artistic elements from Catholic, Classical Roman, and Byzantine artistic traditions.

The culmination of Christian and Moorish art culminated in the 11th century. This style became known as the Mozarabic art. This artistic style included ceramics which incorporated mosaic works. It also included the use of repetitive patterns revolving around flower-like designs within sculptures and crafted works. Moorish ivory caskets in Al-Andalus showed signs of western influences. Some depicted individual people and human forms, an element that is not typical in Islamic art.

Visigothic tradition also had an influence on the rulers of Cordoba as they adopted the crowns in the style of those worn by Visigothic kings. Many of these artistic elements were incorporated into architectural works, which reflected Muslim rulers’ desire to associate themselves with their ancestral roots in the Middle East, and indeed to assert their Arabic heritage, even though many of these rulers were hybrids even in terms of their genealogy. This is indicative of the multi-cultural influences that culminated in the unique architectural style of Al-Andalus.

One famous example that illustrates this desire of Muslim rulers’ to tie themselves to their ancestral homeland, while at the same inadvertently reflecting their multiculturalism, is the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Construction began under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman I in 784 AD and was completed in 987 AD. It was built in part to demonstrate the linkage between Al-Andalus and the ancestral land of the Arabs in Syria. The Great Mosque of Cordoba's architectural layout and style shares many similarities with the Great Mosque of Damascus (completed 715). They share many of the same features like the prayer halls, high ceilings held by double-tiered arcades on columns, and many mosaics.[12] The two also share similar foundation myths, which further points to Muslim attempts in Al-Andalus to reconnect to a nostalgic sense of homeland. Despite these similarities, the mosque is not purely Arabic in style. It is a combination of Roman, Byzantine, and Visigothic architectural elements. The capitals and columns closely emulate older Visigothic and Roman buildings found throughout the city of Cordoba. The red and white colored arches are also reminiscent of the Roman aqueduct of Merida. The mosaics themselves, although connected to those at the Great Mosques of Damascus, are also a hybrid of Christian and Arabic influence.

The artisans that produced these mosaics, both at the Great Mosque and at the Cordoban palace estate al-Rustafa, were called from Byzantium. Another example of the cultural exchange within architecture is illustrated by the Medina Azahara, meaning beautiful city, on the outskirts of Cordoba started in 996 AD, by Abd-ar-Raham III al-Nasir, which served as the capital of the Iberian Caliphate. Roman influences can be seen throughout with the incorporation of an old Roman statue of a goddess present in the gardens of the building. The feminine form also appeared on all the various gates to the city. The capitals and columns of the palace are also in the style of Christian cathedrals, while Byzantine influence is also seen throughout the construction of the palace.

Byzantium artisans are believed to have come to teach these techniques to Andalusian artisans. Some of the original Byzantium artisans also remained in Al-Andalus and became integrated into Andalusian society. Likewise, Christians and Jews adopted the Arabic architectural elements into their own churches and synagogues built under Moorish rule. This became known as the Mozarabic style. Mozarabic architecture included the absence of exterior decoration, diversity of floor plans, the use of the horseshoe arch in the Islamic style, and the use of the column as support, with a capital decorated with vegetable elements.[13] Moorish styled architecture continued to be popular long after Muslim rule was pushed out of Spain by the Reconquista.[14]

Many Christian Cathedrals were built in the Moorish architectural style. Jewish synagogues, like the Sinagoga del Transito in Toledo (built between 1357–1363), were built in the Moorish style. The Spanish-Moorish artistic style that is exemplified by the Sinagoga del Transito became known as the Mudejar style. Overall, the architecture of Al-Andalus is reflective of the cultural exchange that took place between Christian and Arabic architectural styles, the latter being representative of the need of Muslims leaders to form a connectedness with their ancestral homelands.

Manuscript page by Maimonides, one of the greatest Jewish scholars of Al Andalus, born in Córdoba. Arabic language in Hebrew letters

The first Arabic numerals in the West.

Much like art and architecture, language and literature are best understood as evolving together through a hybridisation process, in the context of Al-Andalus. It is also important to note that language and literature also had a huge impact on all ideas that flowed into all areas of study, which will be briefly touched on in this section.

The Muslim invasion of Iberia brought about [universal education], which in turn significantly raised literacy rates, compared to the rest of Christian Europe at this time, although rural areas still had lower literacy rates. The literature of Al-Andalus represents a combination of Arabic, Christian, and Jewish styles, which fused over time under the Caliphate of Cordoba.

The Arabic tradition in Al-Andalus has its roots in the Qur’an and in Arabic poems. These poems tended to have both religious and secular subject matter. Some of these poems contained secular themes and love stories that would later be influential to Iberian literature. By the 9th century these poems became lyrical and almost musical in nature. These types of musical poems became known as muwashshahs.[15] The Muslims also introduced translations of ancient Greek and Roman works that had been lost during the Dark Ages. The Muslim invaders declared Arabic the official language of Al-Andalus, but Arabic was only used by a small minority within the region.

Variations of Romance dialects persisted in many areas and the dialect varied from area to area with no clear boundaries. These Romance languages eventually fused with Arabic and some elements of Hebrew to form the Mozarabic dialect, which became influential in the literature produced in this geographic area. The later dispersion of Mozarabs across the Iberian peninsula explains why many of the words in modern-day Spanish, Portuguese, and Catalan are derived from these early Mozarabic Romance dialects.[16] It must be stressed that no standard language existed on the Iberian Peninsula as a whole, or even in Al-Andalus itself, at the time this style took shape. This newly formed Mozarabic style first appeared in literature in the kharjas or choruses of the muwashshahs.[17]

These kharjas were usually written in Arabic or Hebrew, but eventually appeared in a vernacular Mozarabic. style[17] A literal mixture of phrases from the Iberian vernacular, Hebrew, and Arabic was not uncommon in the kharjas. Kharjas are of great importance to the Iberian literary and linguistic tradition because they represent a hybridisation of the Christian and Classical tradition of having repetitive choruses as those found in earlier lyric poems, with the Hebrew and Arabic tradition which emphasised love and the everyday struggles of life. This combination was important to linguistic development as vernacular Romance languages began to adopt and alter Arabic or Hebrew words found in the kharjas.

The evolution of the Mozarabic style in language and literature perpetuated what has come to be called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. The dates for this so-called golden age are widely disputed although they correspond roughly with the beginning of the Caliphate of Cordoba, entering a decline under Almoravid rule, and being put to an end under Almohad rule. Jewish authors living in Al-Andalus became inspired by the influx of ideas that came with the wealth of literature. This literature represented both a translation of classical Greek and Roman works under rulers like al-Hakam II, which had been lost to Europeans previous to the Muslim invasion, and also the coming together of Christian and Arab ideas into entirely new works.

Muslim universities, libraries, courts, and to some degree Christian monasteries were hubs for literature, the former were also hubs for the hybridisation of literature and thus of ideas.[18] Foreigners from across Europe and the Middle East came to these universities in Al-Andalus, contributing their own ideas, and translating many of the works in Al-Andalus upon their return home. As a result of this literary exchange, a wealth of new literature on the subject of theology, philosophy, science, and mathematics was produced during this time.

The works of Jewish philosopher and theologian Maimonides, Muslim polymath Ibn Rushd(Averroes), Muslim physician Abulcasis, Jewish scholar and physician Hasdai ibn Shaprut, are direct products of the cultural exchange manifested through literature. Their ideas are immortalised through literature, like the novelist Ibn Tufail whose work inspired John Locke’s theory of tabula rasa, which produced far-reaching waves. Both Jewish and Christian scholars adopted Arabic as their language of choice for academic purposes. Jewish poet Moses ben Jacob ibn Ezra, and Christian bishop Recemundus were both bilingual, the latter writing an Arabic-Christian liturgical calendar.[19]

Literary development continued under the Almoravids, although a gradual decline occurred as a result of stricter enforcement of Islamic laws. Under the Almohads, the progressive development of literature, previously started under the Caliphate of Cordoba, almost ceased, with the Almohads censuring works they considered to undermine the authority of the Qur’an. Scholars, like Maimonides, were persecuted and forced to flee. The eventual expulsion of the Almohads, which resulted from the Christian Reconquista, saw a re-emergence of the literary works produced under the Caliphate of Cordoba. The Christian kingdoms of Iberia attempted to uphold the beacon of this literary tradition with the translation of many Arabic and Hebrew works into Latin and later the vernacular (see Toledo School of Translators).