Stefan Lazarević

On 12 September 1405, Stefan married Helena Gattilusio, the daughter of Francesco II of Lesbos. According to Konstantin the Philosopher, Stefan first saw his wife on Lesbos, where Francesco II offered him a choice among his daughters; the marriage was arranged "with the advice and participation" of Helena's sister, Empress Eirene. Surprisingly, there is no mention of Helena after her marriage to Stefan; this led Anthony Luttrell to remark that "apparently there were never any children; nothing is known of her death or burial; and, most unusual, she did not appear in any of the post-1402 fresco portraits of Stefan".[4] Luttrell concludes "Maybe she was too young for the marriage to be consummated, and perhaps she stayed on Lesbos and never traveled to Serbia; possibly she died soon after her marriage."[5]

Remains of Donjon Tower of the Fortress Kruševac, the capital of lands of the House of Lazarević, where he was born Prince Stefan Lazarević.

Stefan Lazarević was born, probably, in 1377 in Kruševac, the capital of his father, Prince Lazar. After the Battle of Kosovo on 15 June 1389, where his father was killed, Stefan became the new Serbian prince, but before he became of age the state was ruled by his mother, Princess Milica. In the battle of Kosovo in 1389, both rulers were killed, the Serbian Prince Lazar and Ottoman Sultan Murad I, which is very rare in history.[7] (Murad I was the first and the last Ottoman ruler who was killed on the battlefield).

He came to the throne in a specific time for the state of Lazarević, who found herself surrounded by powerful neighbors. On one side was Bayezid I, who withdrew after the Battle of Kosovo in order to consolidate his power among the Ottomans, while next door there was Vuk Branković, the husband of Stefan's sister Mara, who after the battle became the most powerful of Serbian aristocrats. The neighbor on the west was Bosnian king Tvrtko I (1353–1377 ban, king 1377–1391) which was considered the legitimate successor of Nemanjić crown and he portrayed Battle of Kosovo like his own victory over the Ottomans, while their possessions in the north bordering with Hungary, King Sigismund.

On 7 July, three weeks after the battle, Sigismund sent his palatin Nicholas II Garay to negotiate with Vuk Branković about things that are in his and Serbian favor, where he confirmed in advance any agreements that they have achieved. Although both Nicholas and Vuk were married with sisters of Stefan, it was not uncommon at the time that strong neighbors, even relatives, to suppress the legitimate heirs to throne as juvenile. The outcome of these negotiations is not known, but already in the fall, Sigismund began an offensive against young Serbian prince Stefan. His forces have crossed the Sava River in October and early November were they occupied the fortresses of Borač and Čestin, at presents Kragujevac.

In these circumstances, the State Assembly with the support of Serbian Patriarch Spyridon (1379–1389), decided on the conclusion of peace and acceptance of the supremacy of the sultan Bayezid I, after which they began negotiations with the Ottomans, who ended by concluding peace, before the middle of year 1390. Details of making this decision are not closely familiar, but it is certain that peace was made before the death of Patriarch Spirydon, 18 August 1389.

According to the conclusion of peace, Prince Stefan pledged to send extra squads to Ottoman sultan and pay tribute, and he and his brother Vuk Lazarević must appear annually at the Sultan's Palace to confirm the allegiance to Bayezid I. In addition to these common vassal obligations, Bayezid I has married youngest daughter of Prince Lazar and Princess Milica, Olivera, which, her brother and the new prince, Stefan, personally had to take to the Sultan Bayezid in Bursa. The consequences of this peace were immediately visible because already in summer 1390, Serbian forces reinforced with extra Ottoman detachments, recaptured the lost cities, and probably in part of these operations the Ottomans took Golubac. Stefan military support various Ottoman campaigns while Bayazid I support Stefan against his nobles and his restoring of Serbia which become relatively strong state.[8]

There is no data of the activities of Vuk Branković during this period. It is certain that after Battle of Kosovo he was sought to expand his area ( among other things, he has conquered the part of Polimlje ) and he used the same title that was used before him by Prince Lazar (lord of Serbs and Podunavije).

However, by early May 1390, he felt threatened and he asked the Republic of Ragusa to facilitate his safety, if it comes in a quandary, which could be linked with the Ottoman detachments who helped Stefan during the summer to suppress the Hungarians from their state. But there is no evidence that there was some hostility between Stefan and Vuk Branković. There was recorded in the sources that Vuk attended in formal transfer of Prince Lazar's holy body from his capital Priština to the monastery Ravanica late 1390 and early 1391, and is also known that in his court, during the year 1392, came Princess Milica.

The conflict in the Serbian-Hungarian border, has continued over the next two years, and in their suppression Sigismund was involved, who has repeatedly visited the army of the Danube. In Summer 1392, he was crossed the river near Kovin and march to the city of Ždrelo near Valjevo, then retreated and tried to win Golubac. At the same time, the area of Vuk Branković has been under Ottomans attack. In early 1392, they have occupied Skoplje and continued marching of the north, forcing Vuk by the end of the year to make peace with Bayezid and become his vassal.

Part of Belgrade Fortress from the time of Despot Stefan

In late October, Stefan's army from Bar, moved across the country of Balšić and Venetian lands, from Shkoder to Kosovo. Avoiding the main roads controlled by his opponents, Stefan's forces arrived at Gračanica 21 November near Tripolje, in the following battle the forces of Branković, strengthened by Ottoman detachments, were defeated.

Stephen broke his army in two, with orders sent by his mother, before the battle, and his opponents did the same. Most of the troops were placed under the command of his brother Vuk and directed them against the forces commanded by Đurađ Branković, while he, with a smaller part of the army attacked the Ottomans. Forces under his command had won a victory, but the significance it played was small Caesar Uglješa Vlatković. He was still an Ottoman vassal, but he reported to Stefan with their war plan, and during the battle was joined at his side. As a reward for this, Stefan gave him authority over Vranje, Inogoštem (Surdulica) and Preševo, which had previously belonged to his father and that area was connected to the Serbian despotate. Lazarević, having retreated after the battle in Novo Brdo, came into a verbal conflict with Vuk. The despot's younger brother accused him of ignorance of war casualties and his weak leadership skills, because the bulk of their forces, commanded by Vuk, were defeated in the battle with the army led by Đurađ Branković.

Victory in Battle of Tripolje, enabled Stefan to regain his throne and influence in Serbia, which was further strengthened in the coming years. However, the fight with Branković had not ended and in a sense, further complicated by the conflict that arose between Stefan and Vuk. His younger brother in the summer 1403 left Serbia and headed to Süleyman, to ask him for help and force his older brother to cede part of the state administration. He was in fact told to stop by their mother, who followed him, but she failed to reach him before he arrived at the court of Süleyman. During his time at his court, she was able to reconcile the brothers prior to October 1404 and she succeeded in smoothing relations between Stefan and Süleyman. During the next year, Stefan tried to avoid the renewal of hostilities with the Ottomans.

Gračanica monastery built in 1321 by King Stephen Uroš II Milutin of Serbia.

In 1403, Süleyman was in Gallipoli negotiating with a number of Christian states (Byzantium, Genoa, Venice, Knights Hospitaller and Naxos) in the Balkans in order to secure an agreement with them and start an offensive against his brothers in Asia Minor. The terms of the agreement were that Byzantium was to cease being a vassal of the Ottoman, while in the territorial sense, regain Thessaloniki and a number of cities on the coast of the Bosphorus and Black Sea. One of the provisions of this contract referred to Stefan, although he probably did not take part in its conclusion. Stefan kept his former possessions, but had to still pay tribute and send the Sultan support militarily, although he was not obliged to lead them himself.

The Kingdom of Hungary at that time was in a crisis, King Sigmund I had lost the throne because part of the nobility was captured April 1401 in Buda. He was released in late 1401 and retired to Bohemia, where he spent the next year.

Sigismund of Hungary - Antonio Pissanelo 1433

Changed conditions in Southeast Europe in the early fifteenth century, led to a convergence of Despot Stefan and Hungarian king Sigismund. Stefan needed a strong ally who could help him get rid of Ottoman domination, but also stay on the throne of Serbia, due to an open conflict with Branković, who enjoyed the support of Süleyman. On the other hand, Hungary was in a deep internal crisis, and, until 1403, Sigismund was unable to return to the country and regain control, although the resistance of his opponent failed to break even after his return. It was therefore necessary for him to rely on a secure southern border, which had previously been constantly exposed to the combined Serbian-Ottoman attacks, while simultaneously trying to provide a strong base for the fight against the Ottomans and eventually expand to the south.

Coat of arms of Despot Stefan

The negotiations were most likely initiated by King Sigismund, and he sent emissaries to Stefan, among whom was his close associate of Florentine origin, Filippo Scolari. The objective of this delegation had been successful, and led to the conclusion of an agreement between the two rulers in late 1403 or early 1404. Under its provisions, Stefan accepted vassal relations to Sigismund, and received from him Mačva and Belgrade. With these new lands, including the Golubac Fortress, Stefan had strengthened his northern border, now delineated by the Sava and Danube rivers. As now a close ally to Sigismund, Stefan was among the first knights of the Order of the Dragon.

At the same time (1403 or early in 1404) Stefan was attacked lands of Branković around river Sitnica, and then began to attack the areas under Ottoman control, in which it might have had and Hungarian military support troops. It is not known exactly from which cities and regions has managed to push the Ottomans, but it is thought that his offensive was directed toward eastern Serbia, and Kosovo. After these successes, he was able to make peace with Branković, and at the same time through his mother reconciled with Süleyman.

Immediately after the takeover of Belgrade, Stefan started the reconstruction of its fortifications, which were destroyed by the Ottomans in 1397. In addition, he began work on the development of the city, which were carried out by the end of his reign, but in the beginning of 1405, Stefan was transferred his capital to it, which until then was in Kruševac. In September of the same year, he married Helena Gattilusio, but only two months later, with his mother's death (11 November), Stefan remained without strong support. Nevertheless, the situation in Serbia have stabilized and start to grow in prosperity, as evidenced by the charter in Borač, 2 December of that year, issued from Dubrovnik. Negotiations about their shopping preferences are driven during the year and Despot with present Charter confirmed the privileges that they previously enjoyed. It also represents the charter of Serbian ruler, which was issued after the 1387th in Dubrovnik. At the end of the month, a charter was issued to them from Stefan's sister Mara Branković with sons. This includes Dubrovnik provide benefits to its merchants throughout Serbia, but it is noticeable that Stefan was not referred to the charter, even though her husband Vuk in their charters, always calling on those issued by Lazar of Prince Lazar.

At the beginning of 1405 The great rebellion broke out in the local population in Skadar end against the Venetian rule. The reason for it lay in the arrogant and high-handed fashion of Venetian rule, which was manifested impounding the property, which were then shared to Venetian supporters, denying the rights of Orthodox churches in the area under the supreme authority of Venice and a host of other abuses of power. In this opposition became involved Stefan's nephew Balša III (1403-1421) which sought to restore the cities which his father, Đurađ Stracimirović Balšić, once transferred to Venice (1396), to protect from the Ottoman invasion. He asked for help from Süleyman in fighting, and from Duke Vuk Lazarević, but is nevertheless a war waged without major battles and a clear winner. In the negotiations on concluding a peace as a mediator intervened and Despot Stefan himself, but they were unsuccessful, although guided by a number of occasions. He was first in May 1406 mediated by the Venetians, then in June 1407 when he was with his sister Mara and Nikita Topi supposed to guarantee that the Balša III fulfill the obligations, but peace was not concluded. A peace agreement was finally signed in June 1408th The and in it Stefan was mentioned as one of the guarantors of the signed contract, but it did not come into effect and the conflict continued.

Hungarian King Sigismund, in December 1408, was founded the Order of the Dragon, who tried to gather his supporters. The symbol of order was a dragon, and after whom it was called, and the first among the knights, the founding charter of 13 December 1408, was Stefan Lazarević. He was present at the ceremony in honor of knights, which was held in Budapest, and the dragon symbol was present at his court.

At that time, the late 1408, Stefan protested against his younger brother Vuk. The reason for his dissatisfaction was that Stefan did not want to share throne with him and give him part of the state administration. In turn, Vuk was probably disappointed to Stefan's connecting with Sigmund I and the West. He therefore went to Süleyman and asked him for military assistance against Stefan. In return, he promised to recognize his sovereignty, if he receives his own state and if Branković and his brothers joined him.

Stefan and Vuk (Fresco from monastery Rudenica 1402 — 1405)

At the beginning of 1409, Süleyman's Ottoman forces broke into Serbia at the battlefield of Kosovo and nearby Priština was destroyed, as evidenced by a letter that arrived in February in Dubrovnik, from the merchants of the city.[12] Dubrovnik people in Serbia were also instructed that, as citizens of the Republic, could call for its neutrality during the conflict, but they were also told not to harm Stefan's people, as well as in the case of attacks on towns where they were engaged in their defense. Stefan was assisted in the fighting by Sigismund I, whose forces were under the command of Philip de Skolarisa, late January through Kovin, joined to Serbia. His quick reaction testifies to the fact that Stefan and Sigismund were aware of Vuk's impending departure to Süleyman's side Ottoman attack.[12] In early May, Sigismund went to Serbia, who was joined by Ban Jovan Morović from Mačva, but in June began Süleyman's new offensive. After fierce battles that were fought during the summer, Stefan withdrew and enclosed himself in Belgrade. He refused to conform with Süleyman, but was forced to negotiate with his brother, which practically led to the division of the country. Vuk was submitted to the administration of its southern part, which included the area south of the West Morava.[14] He ruled on his own and accepted Süleyman suzerainty, as did the Branković family.

In addition to the conflict in Serbia, the year 1409 had several significant events that influenced the change of situation in the Balkans. Süleymanmade peace with the Venetians in June, to whom they pledged to pay an annual tribute, as well as surrendering their former possessions in the area of Skadar and Zeta.[12] His brother and rival in the struggle for power, Musa Çelebi moved to Europe and began to gather around him supporters and allies in the fight against Süleyman.

Late 16th-century depiction of Musa and Süleyman, facing each other.

Stefan and Musa Çelebi, as a result of conflict with Süleyman, were natural allies. Through his member, Duke Vitko, Stefan first checked Musa's force and then began negotiations that led to the conclusion of the alliance.[12] In addition to Stefan,the Branković family, and Vuk Lazarević also had joined Musa. His forces began an offensive while Süleyman was in Asia Minor. At the beginning of 1410, Gallipoli was occupied, and by 13 February, were at Süleyman's Yambol, defeating defending beglerbeg Sinan,[16] which has forced his brother to try to return to Europe and deal with Musa.

That gave him the support of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, with whom he remained on friendly terms and who gave him a boat to cross the Bosporus. Manuel's position significantly influenced the distribution of forces on the ground[12] and very quickly changed those who supported Musa approach to Süleyman. Help in the transfer of his forces in Europe, tried to give prince Vuk, who asked the Venetian deputies in early June to obtain the Venetian fleet's assistance in the transport of troops.[12] Vuk very soon after that escaped to Süleyman, as did the Branković brothers.[12]

Stefan and Musa tried to prevent the crossing of Süleyman's forces in Europe, with an attack on the fleet that was carrying them.[19] There in Galatians, they managed to destroy some of the ships, but Süleyman's forces still managed to cross the Bosporus Strait.

View of Golubac fortress.

The great battle between the two Bayezid sons occurred on 15. June in Battle of Kosmidion, on the banks of the Golden Horn, in front of the Byzantine land walls of Constantinople. Musa's forces were defeated, and when he left the battlefield, the Despot Stefan pulled back from the battle.[19] He began his departure following the Golden Horn to the Galatians, but the Byzantine emperor Manuel sent ships to pick him up and carried him to Constantinople,[19] although he himself was on the side of Süleyman. Constantinople organized a solemn reception for Stefan,[12] and Manuel used the situation to confirm his title of Despot, and then handed over the crown of despotic dignity.[12] After a short stay in the Byzantine capital, to Stefan and his entourage, including Uglješa Vlatković, with ships headed to Serbia. Through the Black Sea and Danube rivers, and the state of Duke Mirča, they arrived in Golubac[12] in late July or early August of that year.[19]

Süleyman after winning the Battle of Kosmidion again tried to push Stefan Lazarević from the throne, as he did after the Battle of Angora 1402; sending Stefan's relatives to Serbia to take the throne. In late June, he sent Vuk Lazarević and Lazar Branković to Serbia, who the continued the fight with his younger brother, whom he once again defeated on 11 July in Adrianople.[16]

However, he failed in Serbia. During that time, on 4 July the supporters of Musa caught the Serbian Prince in Filipolje. Vuk Lazarević, after the deliberation of his fate was executed, Lazar Branković was still left in life for a few days. Musa attempted to blackmail Đurađ Branković to move to his side for the upcoming battle (of Adrianople, 11 July). He refused, and actively participated in the victory of Süleyman, so Musa had Lazar executed. Soon after that, Stefan returned to the country and took control of it in its entirety, including the southern parts that were ruled by his brother, Prince Vuk.

Musa's position after the defea was severely affected and he retired to Stefan, Serbia.[12] He managed to gain the support of the Ottomans in Europe,[16] and other followers of Süleyman approached him, some because of his promise, and some because Süleyman's unbalanced posture.[12] His troops at the beginning of 1411 defeated Süleyman's defending troops in Serdica,[16] while Süleyman himself escaped from Adrianople and tried to get to Constantinople.[16] On this journey, he was captured and killed (17 February) by Musa's supporters, who then became the sole ruler of the European part of Ottoman Empire.

Wikisource has original text related to this article: A homage to love

His rise to throne has not brought peace and stability to Balkans, on the contrary, he quickly turned against themselves and their former allies. Serbian Parliament, were sent by Stefan to regulate relations and confirming previous agreements, but not only that he failed, but he barely managed to save their own lives,[19] but Musa was given permission to dig up Vuk Lazarević and his remains transferred to Serbia.[19] This was a clear declaration of war and Stefan immediately began offensive. He entered the Pirot area from which they launched attacks on the Ottomans, who had stopped only when he sent a mission of Musa and offered talks.[12]

Ruins of Fortress Srebrenica.

Cooperation between Sigismund I and Stefan continued through 1411, when the Serbian Despot, in July, stayed in Buda, accompanied by his nobles. On that occasion there was a strengthening of mutual relations, but the text of the agreement and its provisions have not been preserved. His biographer says that on that occasion Stefan did true love with West,[19] and Jovana Kalić said that Stefan since then often went to Buda and not be returned without a new property, which he lavishly endowed the ruler of Hungary, adding that from Hungarian sources that time proclaim that the Serbian Despot with their country subverted the supremacy of the Hungarian king.[12] Stefan received form Sigismund lands in former Hungary, which included the villages, towns and mines, which were in Szatmár County, Bihar County, Szabolcs County and Torontál County.[12] By late summer, Sigismund I made peace with the King of Bosnia Ostoja (the first government of 1398-1404, the second government from 1409 to 1418) and other nobles from Bosnia, which ended the long-term conflicts. Under his control remained Usora area, while Srebrnica, probably during that year, transferred to Despot Stefan.[12] At the end of the year, Stefan's sister and the widow of Đurađ II Kotromanić Balšić, Jelena remarried to Sandalj Hranić Kosača after his peace with Sigismund I. In May next year, Stefan was with a large entourage was back in Budapest. He attended the great council of the European aristocracy in which there has been a reconciliation between Sigismund I and Polish king Vladislav II (Duke of Lithuania 1377-1434, king of Poland from 1386 to 1434), and next to him at the council appeared nobles and the king of Bosnia, as well as a number of other Balkan rulers and nobles.

At the same time, Stefan's sister, Mara, linked up with him and on behalf of his son Đurađ, who led his forces in army of Musa, tried to fix the relations between them and reconcile them, in which she succeeded. Musa forces in the fall 1411, attacked the town of Selimvria on the Sea of Marmara near Constantinople, in which it had been the son of Süleyman, Orhan, whom was the candidate of Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos for the Ottoman throne. During the siege, Musa tried to kill Đurađ, but he managed to save himself by escaping to the town of Selimvria, with his troops. Then, from Thessaloniki, he back in the fall 1412 in Serbia and reconciled with his uncle Stefan,[12] which ended the conflict between two families that has caused division in Serbia.

Sultan Mehmed I.

Against Musa was created a broad coalition, in which the Ottoman commanders from some parts of the Balkans, and his only remaining brother, Mehmed I, who ruled part of former Bayezid Asian countries, joined them. His first attempt to cross into Europe 1411 was finished with defeat, but they kept fighting on other fronts, so that by the end of that year Stefan, and Skopje and Kyustendil Beylerbey's attacked the country of Musa.[12] Winter weather and swollen river Marica have prevented the connection of their and Mehmed I's forces over the Ser area. The answer to this attack came in the early 1412 when Musa from around Serdica and Čemernik fell over in Vranje area and looted it, while Uglješa Vlatković, who ruled that part of Serbian Despotate, barely saved himself. His forces then continued with march to Novo Brdo, but the news of the arrival of Despot Stefan-led, he left Serbia and went to Thessaloniki and Thessaly.

New campaign Musa began in 1413, with attack on Hamza bey who held the Svrljig and Soko Grad. He was captured and executed, and Musa forces then occupied Bovan and Lipovac, as well as many other towns in Morava Valley (Koprijan, Kruševac, Markovo Kale, Petrus and Stalać,[20] whose commander was killed heroically providing great resistance. In addition, his troops, according to reports in March that were sent from Novo Brdo to Dubrovnik, devastated Toplica and Braničevo.[12]

Monument to Stefan.

During this period, Despot Stefan was collecting his forces, and military support he received from Sigismund, but also of his son in law Sandalj Hranić Kosača. His forces were met with Mehmed I commanders near Kruševac and after the agreement there was a merger of their armies, which were sent to the south.[19] At the mouth of the Toplica river at Dobrič, near Koprijan, they were joined by some Musa supporters,[19] including the commander of the army Evrenos,[12] after which they continued traveling to Ovče Polje. Stefan, Sandalj Hranić Kosača and Jovan Morović at Skopska Crna Gora leave troops and return to Serbia, and command of them took Đurađ Branković.[12]

So the battle has come on 15 July 1413. near the village Camurlu (Battle of Camurlu), at the mountain Vitosha, in present-day Bulgaria. Musa forces managed to suppress the Serbian army at the first phase of fighting, but Đurađ attacked from the side,[19] which is especially noted the great leader Radič Postupović,[12] and managed to break enemy lines and brought the victory of the allied troops. During the withdrawal from the battle, Musa was on the river Iskra captured and killed, which after more than a decade ended the civil war in the Ottoman Empire. Stefan and Đurađ after the battle acknowledged supremacy of Mehmed I, who gave to Stefan rich gifts and some areas, including the fortress Znepolje and the area Koprijan.[19]

Despot Stefan Lazarević Memorial from 1427

As most of the rulers and noblemen of those times, Despot Stefan loved and used to saddle his horse often and ride with his escort to hunt in nearby villages. On one of the returns from the castle in Belgrade Fortress finding himself near the place known as Glava, or Glavica, at Mt. Kosmaj, Despot stopped his escort in order to ride out to hunt. As accustomed he stretched his hand forward to let the hobby on it but his body did not obey. The whole escort noticed the way his body was leaning from one to the other side, becoming aware that something unusual was happening. Everybody knew well his imposing pose on a horse and they all doubtfully watched him fall down to ground helplessly. According to Constantine the Philosopher, his sudden death on 19 July 1427 was indicated by a mystic storm which made the sky from Belgrade turn black, and the thunder covered his soft, last words, "Get George, get George!"

Monument to Stefan in Belgrade

The death of Despot was experienced as the Last Judgement, a disaster, as the Judgement day among people. Dreading future troubles, the whole state grieved for their ruler, whom they knew from the beginning was "the chosen messenger of the new age".[22] Despot's death announced the hardest period in the history of the Serbian state and people represented in destruction of the state Despot and loss of state identity. The old Byzantine-South Slavonic prophecies (the Revelation of Pseudo-Methodius, the apocryphal Visions of Daniel and the Oracles of Leo the Wise) usually interpreted Ishmaelite, that is Muslims, conquests as a result of Christian sins.[23] For the Orthodox Christians, in the 15th century, this topos became especially alluring, since it corresponded to the idea of "the end of the world" in the year 7000 "from the creation of the world" (=1491/1492 AD), according to the Byzantine calendar.

In order to save the memory of the moment of deceasing of the favourite and honoured ruler, a stone marker was erected on the place where Despot fell off the horse. Saying farewell to their master, his closest associates, who were escorting him in the moment of the accident, built a monument of marble stone, leaving messages of loyalty and respect. These inscriptions show the monument was built by Đurađ Zubrović, a nobleman from the territory, which the hamlet Glava belonged to, as well as the knight from Despot's escort. Despots Stephanos was buried at Resava.