Yonsei (Japanese diaspora)

Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan, numbering an estimate of more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity).[6] The Yonsei Japanese Brazilians are a statistically significant component of that ethnic minority in that South American nation, comprising 12.95% of the Japanese Brazilian population in 1987.[7]

There are about 1.2 million people with Japanese ancestors in the United States.[8]

The term Yonsei Japanese American refers generally to Yonsei citizens of the United States,[9] but the term's usage is flexible—describing both emigrant and immigrant experiences. Most of the interned Japanese-Peruvian Nisei who were deported from Peru during World War II became naturalized American citizens; but they considered their naturalized children as Sansei, meaning three generations away from the emigrants who had sailed to South America at the turn of the century. From this perspective, the sons and daughters of these formerly stateless refugees would be Yonsei, even as offspring of parents who would be otherwise categorized as Issei or "first generation" immigrants would also be called Nisei.[10]

While the Japanese Americans were the largest ethnic group in Hawai'i for more than sixty years (1900–1960), their numbers have decreased since then.[11] The Hawaiian Yonsei don't have to be actively involved in the creation of their group ethnic identity and they tend to dichotomize their American and Japanese heritage.[12][13] As of 2008, the U.S. yonsei generation had been the subject of relatively few academic studies.[14] Notable among the literature to date on yonsei is Carrie Takahata's 2002 poem "Making Yonsei",[15] in which she compares and contrasts the yonsei generation with previous Hawaiian Japanese generations.[14]

The yonsei differ from previous generations of Japanese-Americans in that World War II and the internment camps which overshadowed the lives of previous generations are concepts unrelated to their daily existence.[16] Due to a lack of obvious struggles or difficulties faced by previous generations of Japanese-Americans, the yonsei are sometimes called the "spoiled generation".[17] The yonsei generation in Hawai'i can be compared to white Americans in the continental U.S. The yonsei have an equal, if not higher, educational, economic and political status as their continental white counterparts, and also have a low immigration rate, as Japanese immigration has declined since 1965.[18] Also, intermarriage with non-Japanese became common in the Japanese American community in the 1960s. Intermarriage among Japanese Americans was at approximately 50% by the 1970s, and at 70% in the 1990s.[16] This cultural distance from the original homeland results in a "symbolic" expression of ethnicity seen in both the continental white and the Hawaiian yonsei groups. Outside of the continental white population, the yonsei of Hawai'i are one of the few U.S. ethnic groups that express their ethnicity in a "symbolic" way.[18]

While members of the sansei and yonsei generation may visit Japan, they tend to see this activity only as tourism. Japanese cultural structure is generally not present among the yonsei generation.[19] According to a 2006 study of yonsei women in Hawai'i, this generation of Japanese-Americans tends to assert their ethnicity in such "symbolic" ways as the celebration of holidays and ceremonies associated with Japan, eating ethnic foods, and the use of Japanese middle-names. The study noted that the yonsei generation considered its ethnicity to be less important than did previous generations of Japanese-Americans.[20] Cheryl Lynn Sullivan, an ethnic research who specializes in the Japanese-American community of California, wrote, "It is common in the Japanese American community not to consider yonsei Japanese American -- they are 'just plain Americans.' This is especially true of children who are the offspring of Japanese American-Euro-American marriages."[16] Others celebrate their ancestry in cultural exchanges based around youth and sports events, e.g. Yonsei Basketball Association.

According to a 2011 columnist in The Rafu Shimpo of Los Angeles, "Younger Japanese Americans are more culturally American than Japanese" and "other than some vestigial cultural affiliations, a Yonsei or Gosei is simply another American."[21]

Different organizations were created within the Japanese American community in order for the children of these Japanese American families to have a place where they could partake in different extracurricular activities, such as basketball, golf, baseball, etc. One such organization was the Yonsei Basketball Association, which was created in 1993 by Frank Kiyomura. Its mission statement is, "Our program was founded with a goal of providing a cultural exchange program for Fourth Generation Japanese-American youth from Southern California. We want to provide an opportunity for all participants to experience their heritage and cultural roots. In addition, we hope to provide a goodwill exchange of ideas and cultures by living with local Japanese families." Every year they give out scholarships to selected children from the Japanese American community and assemble both a boys' and girls' team together to send and play in a tournament in Japan.[22]

Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, distinct generational subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.[23][24]

Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the Yonsei Japanese Peruvians are an expanding element.[25]

The term Nikkei (日系) was coined by a multinational group of sociologists and encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.[26] The collective memory of the Issei and older Nisei was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.[27] In this context, the significant differences in life experiences and opportunities has done little to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives amongst their children and grandchildren.

The Yonsei, their parents, their grandparents, and their children are changing the way they look at themselves and their pattern of accommodation to the non-Japanese majority.[29]

There are currently just over one hundred thousand British Japanese, mostly in London; but unlike other Nikkei communities elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as Issei, Nisei, or Sansei. Usually in Britain, there are only Issei and Nisei anyway, since Nisei almost always marry non-Japanese, and Issei to a lesser extent.[30]

• Aoyagi-Stom, Caroline. "Yonsei Grandchildren of Nisei Vets Help Keep 'Go for Broke' Story Alive"] The Pacific Citizen (US). November 11, 2008.
• Fujioka, Janine Midori. (1989). Ethnicity and Patterns of Affectionate Behavior: An Empirical Study of Sansei and Yonsei College-Age Students Thesis (M.A. thesis). Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles. OCLC 21365787
• Itoh, Keiko. (2001). The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 9780700714872; OCLC 48937604
• McLellan, Janet. (1999). Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802044211; ISBN 9780802082251; OCLC 43521129
• Nomura, Gail M. (1998). "Japanese American Women," in The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History (Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780618001828; OCLC 43338598
• Okamura, Jonathan Y. (2008). Ethnicity and Inequality in Hawai'i. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 9781592137558; ISBN 9781592137565; OCLC 474121658
• Reidun, Renée and H. Johansen-Khan. (1987). Ethnic Identity of Sansei and Yonsei Japanese American High School Students in California and Hawaii (M.S. thesis). Davis: University of California. OCLC 81603457
• Serafin, Steven and Alfred Bendixen. (2006). "Hongo, Garrett (Kaoru)," in The Continuum Encyclopedia of American Literature. New York: Continuum. ISBN 9780826417770; OCLC 61478088
• Sowell, Thomas. (1981). Ethnic America: A History. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465020744; OCLC 7306301
• Suzuki, David T. (1977). Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei. Vancouver : B.C. Learning Connection. OCLC: 40403168
• Takahata, Carrie. (2002). "Making Yonsei" in Okamura Jonathan (ed.) The Japanese American Contemporary Experience in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2687-6
• Tsukuda, Patrick Takeo. (2004). Yonsei: A Fourth Generation Reflects. Thesis (M.A.)--Portland State University. OCLC: 56637903
• Watanabe, Karin Junko. (2001). The Influence of Family Structure on the Ethnic Identity: Development of Multiracial Japanese Americans: An Exploratory Study of Yonsei in Hawaii: A Project Based Upon an Independent Investigation. Thesis (M.S.W.)--Smith College School for Social Work OCLC: 48455290

English language culture

• American Yonsei; Hawaiian Yonsei
  • Asakawa, Gil. (2004). Being Japanese American: A JA Sourcebook for Nikkei, Happa -- & Their Friends. Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-880656-85-3; OCLC 54694568
  • Koskof, Ellen. (2005). Music Cultures in the United States: An Introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96588-0
  • Tacoma Community College Library. (1972). Issei, Nisei, Sansei, Yonsei: A Bibliography of Japanese Holdings, Including a Short List of Materials on the Japanese Internment & the U.S. Internal Security Act : a Subject, Title & Author Arrangement. Tacoma: Friends of Tacoma Community College Library.
  • Tanaka, Brandi-Ann. (2000). A Yonsei from Hawai'i: Four Generations of Memories. in Skipping Stones (November 2000).
  • Võ, Linda Trinh and Rick Bonus. (2002). Contemporary Asian American Communities: Intersections and Divergences. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-938-8
  • Yonsei Grandchildren of Nisei Vets Help Keep 'Go for Broke' Story Alive
• Canadian Yonsei
  • Agnew, Vijay. (2005). Diaspora, Memory and Identity: A Search for Home. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9374-5
  • Anderson, Jim, Maureen Kendrick, Theresa Rogers and Suzanne Smythe. (2005). Portraits of Literacy Across Families, Communities, and Schools: Intersections and Tensions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8058-4859-5
  • Hajdukowski-Ahmed, Maroussia, Nazilla Khanlou and Helene Moussa. (2008). Not Born a Refugee Woman: Contesting Identities, Rethinking Practices. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-497-5 OCLC 180755168

Portuguese language culture

• Brazilian Yonsei
  • De Carvalho, Daniella. (2002). Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1705-7
  • Lesser, Jeffrey. (2007). A Discontented Diaspora: Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy, 1960-1980. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4081-2

Spanish language culture

• Peruvian Yonsei
  • Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo and Akemi Kikumura-Yano. (2002). New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4462-1
  • Masterson, Daniel M and Sayaka Funada-Classen. (2003). The Japanese in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07144-7