Adult animation in the United States

In the United States, before the enforcement of the Hays Code, some cartoon shorts contained humor that was aimed at adult audience members rather than children. Following the introduction of the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system, independent animation producers attempted to establish an alternative to mainstream animation. Initially, few animation studios in the United States attempted to produce animation for adult audiences, but later examples of animation produced for adults would gain mainstream attention and success. Adult animation in the United States includes shows with superhero, sci-fi, and fantasy elements.[1] Some of the most prominent animations with these mature themes include The Simpsons, Bojack Horseman, Futurama, and Archer, along with other adult animated television series, feature films, and animation in other forms which helped the genre expand over the years.

Not to be confused with Cartoon pornography.

Cosplay of Leela, Fry, Bender and Amy Wong from Futurama in October 2014, a popular adult animation

Pre-code animation

The earliest cartoon series were based upon popular comic strips,[2] and were directed at family audiences. Most animation produced during the silent film era was not intended to be shown to any specific age group, but occasionally contained humor that was directed at adult audience members, including risqué jokes.[3] Writer Michael Tisserand argued that all animations were "adult swims in the early days of American animation," with shapes which were hand-drawn, frolicking and not behaving "correctly" before audience members who "reacted with shock at this new life they were witnessing."[4] Some scholars, like Jason Mittel, stated that the assumed audience of these early cartoons, particularly Looney Tunes, has alternated from their initial unspecific audience, to children, and back to general audiences as "classics".[5] The earliest known instance of censorship in animation occurred when the censorship board of Pennsylvania requested that references to bootlegging be removed from Walt Disney's 1925 short Alice Solves a Puzzle. One of the earliest animated pornographic films was Eveready Harton in Buried Treasure, produced circa 1928. It has often been suggested that the film was produced for a private party in honor of Winsor McCay.[3] According to Karl F. Cohen's 1998 book, Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America, rumor held that that the film was developed in Cuba years after it was completed, because no lab in New York City would process the film. When a print was screened in San Francisco in the late 1970s, the program notes attributed the animation to George Stallings, George Canata, Rudy Zamora, Sr. and Walter Lantz.[3]

The Motion Picture Association of America, then known as the Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors Association, was established in 1922 as the result of public objection to adult content in films, and a series of guidelines were established, suggesting content that should not be portrayed in films.[3] Until the Hays Code was enforced, many animated shorts featured suggestive content, including sexual innuendo, references to alcohol and drug use, and mild profanity. In the 1933 short Bosko's Picture Show, Bosko appears to use profanity, although it has also been suggested that the character is saying "fox", or even "mug".[6] Apart from this, in the 1920s and 1930s, X-rated cartoons were produced and shown, building upon the "small non-theatrical industry" which had developed "around pornographic films before WWI."[7]

The latter cartoons came at time when the U.S. military began to commission animated films to train recruits.[8] This morphed into the U.S. Army's First Motion Picture Unit, which existed from 1942 to 1945 located at Hal Roach Studios in Culver City, California. The unit included filmmakers like Frank Capra, Looney Tunes creator Rudolf Ising, animator Frank Thomas, and cartoonist Dr. Seuss, and it produced hundreds of animated "training films on a continuous schedule."[8][9][10][11] Animation was integral in these films, helping pilots fly airplanes,[12] soldiers learn the fine points of military camouflage,[10] or train others how to correctly use hand-held weapons.[13]

The Betty Boop series was known for its use of jokes that would eventually be considered taboo following the enforcement of the Hays Code, including the use of nudity. Betty Boop was initially drawn as a dog, and cast as the girlfriend of another Fleischer character, Bimbo. Betty was redesigned as a human, but the series continued to suggest a love relationship between the two that went further than the normal relationship between humans and their pets. The short Is My Palm Read contains a scene in which Betty is shown as a child between the ages of four and five, bathing in the nude. In the 1970s, this scene was shown out of context in performances by The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo. Concert audiences were not aware that Betty was supposed to be a baby in the sequence.[6]

Another short, Bamboo Isle,[14] contains a sequence in which Betty dances the hula topless, wearing only a lei over her breasts and a grass skirt. According to animator Shamus Culhane, Fleischer Studios and Paramount Pictures were shocked by the sequence, but because it was a major sequence, it could not be cut out of the film. Culhane also states that he does not remember any instance in which the film was censored.[6] Betty's hula animation was reused for a cameo appearance with Popeye the Sailor in his self-titled animated debut short of the same name.[15][16][17]

Following the enforcement of the Hays Code, Betty's clothing was redesigned, and all future shorts portrayed her with a longer dress which did not emphasize her physique and sexuality. Shorts produced following the enforcement of the Hays Code were also less surreal in nature, and Betty was portrayed as a rational adult.[18]

After the Hays Code

By 1968, the Hays Office had been eliminated, and the former guidelines were replaced by the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system. The lifting of the Code meant that animated features from other countries could be distributed without censorship, and that censorship would not be required for American productions.[19] Some underground cartoon features from the late 1960s were also aimed at an adult audience, such as Bambi Meets Godzilla (1968), and the anti-war films Escalation (1968), and Mickey Mouse in Vietnam (1969). Escalation in particular is interesting because it was made by Disney animator Ward Kimball, independently from the Disney Studios. Film producer John Magnuson completed an animated short based upon an audio recording of a comedy routine by Lenny Bruce titled Thank You Mask Man (1971), in which The Lone Ranger shocks the residents of the town he saves when he tells them that he wants to have sex with Tonto.[20] The short was made by San Francisco-based company Imagination, Inc. and directed by Jeff Hale, a former member of the National Film Board of Canada. The film was scheduled to premiere on the opening night of Z, as a supplement preceding the main feature, but was not shown. According to a former staff member of the festival, Magnuson ran up the aisle and shouted, "They crucified Lenny when he was alive and now that he is dead they are screwing him again!" The festival's director told Magnuson that the producer of Z did not want any short shown that night. Rumors suggested that the wife of one of the festival's financiers hated Bruce, and threatened to withdraw her husband's money if the short was screened. Thank You Mask Man was later shown in art house screenings, and gained a following, but screenings did not perform well enough financially for Magnuson to profit from the film.[21]

Animated feature films

Ralph Bakshi
Ralph Bakshi successfully established an alternative to mainstream animation through independent and adult-oriented productions in the 1970s.

By the late-1960s, animator Ralph Bakshi felt that he could not continue to produce the same kind of animation as he had in the past. Bakshi was quoted in a 1971 article for the Los Angeles Times as saying that the idea of "grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers, while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets, is ludicrous."[22] With producer Steve Krantz, Bakshi founded his own studio, Bakshi Productions,[23] establishing the studio as an alternative to mainstream animation by producing animation his own way and accelerating the advancement of female and minority animators. He also paid his employees a higher salary than any other studio at that time.[24]

In 1969, Ralph's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca-Cola and Max, the 2000-Year-Old Mouse, a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica.[25][26] However, Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation he was producing, and wanted to produce something personal. Bakshi soon developed Heavy Traffic, a tale of inner-city street life. However, Krantz told Bakshi that studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi's lack of film experience.[26] While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark's Place, Bakshi came across a copy of Robert Crumb's Fritz the Cat. Impressed by Crumb's sharp satire, Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film.[26]

Fritz the Cat was the first animated film to receive an X rating from the MPAA, and the highest grossing independent animated film of all time.[26] While the film is widely noted in its innovation for featuring content that had not been portrayed in American animation before, such as explicit sexuality and violence, the film also offered commercial potential for alternative and independent animated films in the United States, as the film offered a mature, satirical portrayal of the 1960s, including portrayal of drug use, political tension and race relations.[27] Bakshi has been credited for playing an important role in establishing animation as a medium where any story can be told, rather than a medium for children. As a result of the acceptance of Bakshi's features, the director suggested that War and Peace could be produced as an animated film.[28]

Because of the perception that Fritz the Cat was pornographic, Krantz attempted to appeal the film's rating, but the MPAA refused to hear the appeal.[29] Praise from Rolling Stone and The New York Times, and the film's acceptance into the 1972 Cannes Film Festival cleared up previous misconceptions.[26] Bakshi then simultaneously directed a number of animated films, starting with Heavy Traffic. Krantz was nervous about showing too much nudity and sexual content, and had several versions of some scenes animated. Thanks to Heavy Traffic, Bakshi became the first person in the animation industry since Walt Disney to have two financially successful films released back-to-back.[30] Although the film was critically praised, it was banned by the film censorship board in the province of Alberta, Canada when it was originally released.[29]

Bakshi's next film, Coonskin was produced by Albert S. Ruddy. The film, culled from Bakshi's interest in African-American history in America, was an attack on racism and racist stereotypes.[31] Bakshi hired several African-American animators to work on Coonskin and another feature, Hey Good Lookin',[32] including Brenda Banks, the first African-American female animator.[33] After the release was stalled by protests from the Congress of Racial Equality, which accused both the film and Bakshi himself of being racist, the film was given limited distribution, advertised as an exploitation film, and soon disappeared from theaters.[32]

Bakshi avoided controversy by producing fantasy films, including Wizards, The Lord of the Rings and Fire and Ice. Bakshi did not produce another animated feature film after the 1992 release of Cool World.[27] In 2015, after securing funding through a Kickstarter campaign, he released the short film Last Days of Coney Island on the internet.

Other animated features

Although some adult-oriented animated films achieved success, very few animation studios in the United States produced explicitly adult animation during the 1970s, and much of the adult-oriented animation produced in the 1980s and 1990s was critically and commercially unsuccessful.[28] Krantz produced The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat without Bakshi's involvement, and it was released in June 1974 to negative reviews.[34] Charles Swenson developed Down and Dirty Duck as a project for Flo and Eddie (Howard Kaylan and Mark Volman, formerly of The Turtles and The Mothers of Invention) under the title Cheap![35] The film, produced by Roger Corman, was released on 13 June 1977[36] under the title Dirty Duck, and received negative reviews.[37]

However, in 1987, Italian-Canadian cartoonist Danny Antonucci, who would later create the television series Ed, Edd n Eddy for Cartoon Network, released a successful short film titled Lupo the Butcher. The short follows the story of a psychotic, temperamental butcher who swears at his meat when the smallest things go wrong. Produced by Marv Newland's International Rocketship Limited, Lupo the Butcher has become a cult following and opened floodgates to irreverent adult animated series.[38]

Animated films portraying serious stories began to regain notice from mainstream audiences in the beginning of the 21st century.[28] Persepolis, a 2007 adaptation of Marjane Satrapi's autobiographical graphic novel, won the Jury Prize at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival,[39] and was later nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.[40] The Iranian government protested the film's inclusion in the Festival,[39] but later allowed the film to be screened in a censored version, which altered the film's sexual content.[41] The 2008 Israeli film Waltz with Bashir, an animated documentary involving the 1982 Lebanon War, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.[42]

Cosplayers of Homer and Marge, The Simpsons at CWT in December 2015

In 2007, the then world-famous adult animated show The Simpsons generated a feature film produced by 20th Century Fox. Unlike previous films such as South Park: Bigger, Longer, & Uncut, The Simpsons Movie was rated PG-13 for 'some irreverent humor throughout'. The Simpsons Movie was received with mixed reviews by critics as well as teens and adults. A 2021 sequel is being planned at FOX by the title of The Simpsons Movie 2.

Some years later, in December 2015, Anomalisa, am American stop-motion psychological[43] comedy-drama film was released. It was later nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, a Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film, and five Annie Awards. It became the first animated film to win the Grand Jury Prize at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival, after premiering at the Telluride Film Festival on September 4, 2015.[44] Some critics called it a meditation on "loneliness and mental disturbance" and reviewed it positively despite only getting less than $4 million at the box office in the U.S., saying it indicates how rare it is for "non-Hollywood animated features" to become a success in the U.S.[45]

The 2016 film The Killing Joke was the first film in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series, and the first animated Batman film to receive an R rating from the MPAA, with Warner Bros. Animation president Sam Register explaining, "From the start of production, we encouraged producer Bruce Timm and our team at Warner Bros. Animation to remain faithful to the original story—regardless of the eventual MPAA rating... We felt it was our responsibility to present our core audience—the comics-loving community—with an animated film that authentically represented the tale they know all too well."[46] The film was released in a limited theatrical screening on 25 July 2016.[47] Sausage Party, released in 2016, became the first CGI film to be rated R by the MPAA. It grossed over $140 million worldwide, becoming the most successful R-rated animated film of all time.[48] Following the success of Sausage Party, two other adult animated movies, Isle of Dogs and Loving Vincent, were also released theatrically. In 2019, Sony Pictures Animation announced the creation of an "Alternative Animation Initiative" dedicated to producing films aimed at more mature audiences.[49]

The adult animation film, Cryptozoo, by Dash Shaw was released at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival. Some reviewers described it as "gloriously colorful" and praised the animated film.[50]

Festivals

In 1988, San Francisco exhibitor Expanded Cinema screened a compilation of adult-oriented animated shorts under the title "Outrageous Animation". Advertising the package as containing "the wildest cartoons ever", the screenings contained shorts produced outside the United States, as well as independently produced American shorts. Reviews of the festival were mixed. San Francisco Chronicle writer Mick LaSalle hated almost everything screened at the festival, with the exception of Bill Plympton's One of Those Days. In The San Francisco Examiner, David Armstrong gave the show a three-star review and described the films screened as having "some of the rude vitality of the great old Warner Bros. cartoons —and a good deal of the sexual explicitness denied those old favorites from a more cautious age."[51]

In 1990, Mellow Manor Productions began screening films under the title Spike and Mike's Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation. Founders Craig "Spike" Decker and Mike Gribble promoted their festival by handing out flyers on the streets rather than with traditional promotional techniques. In 1991, Decker and Gribble screened their first "All Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation", promising "wild and zany films that could never be shown to our 'normal audience'". The festival screened newer independent shorts, as well as older shorts such as Bambi Meets Godzilla, and Thank You Mask Man. Although the festival promoted works by animators who would later gain mainstream success, such as Bill Plympton, Mike Judge, Trey Parker and Don Hertzfeldt, many reviewers dismissed the bulk of the programming as shock value.[51]

In 2003, Judge and Hertzfeldt created a new touring festival of animation marketed towards adults and college students. The Animation Show brought animated shorts into more North American theaters than any previous commercial festival.[52]

Growing interest in young adult animation

For years, young adult animation, known as YA animation for short, has been discussed by executives and creators, especially those in the United States. In 2000, Tom Freston, the CEO of MTV, said that his network was at the cutting-edge of young adult animation.[53][54] A few years later, a H2VEntertainment, a Montreal-based animation company, financed three animated features aimed "at the teen and young adult market" which would premiere in spring 2004.[55]

Fast forward to the 2010s, when more critics and companies would begin talking about young adult animation. In 2015, one critic stated that the executives in the animation industry in the United States weren't on board with the idea of young adult animation, leading some to do Indiegogo projects instead.[56] Others wrote about animation for young adults among anime in Japan, a theme which continued in later years.[57][58] A few years later, in 2019, one reviewer argued that Adventure Time pushed the "parameters of young-adult animation."[59] The same year, 41 Entertainment partnered with Netflix to produce "animation for young adults"[60] like a reboot of Roswell Conspiracies, scheduled to be released in fall 2021.[61] Also, Webtoon partnered with The Jim Henson Company to develop Rachel Smythe's webcomic, Lore Olympus into a young adult animated series.[62][63] The latter webcomic is one of the world's most popular comics[64][65] and garners some of the highest views of any comic on Webtoon itself.[66] The Jim Hanson company has produced animations like Word Party, Splash and Bubbles, Dot., The Doozers, and Dinosaur Train, among other TV shows.

The same month, Crunchyroll and Webtoon announced a partnership to produce animated works of LINE Webtoon's catalog, with both creating a team to tackle distribution, licensing, and retail of the series produced from the partnership.[67] Around the same time, some HBO executives claimed that South Park would anchor their "young adult animation offering," along with a slate of Adult Swim series, anime programming from Crunchyroll, and "exclusive U.S. streaming rights" to most of the films produced by Studio Ghibli.[68]

A small press conference for The Hunger Games: Catching Fire in November 2013, attended by fans, along with those on the panel (Alan Ritchson, Jeffrey Wright, Sam Claflin, Stephanie Leigh Schlund, and Jena Malone; Hunger Games was cited as an example of YA fiction by Kipo's creator, Rad Sechrist

In 2020, young adult animation came to the forefront once more. HBO Max was said to have a lot of material "oriented towards young adults" in contrast with Disney+.[69] At the same time, some reviewers described The Dragon Prince as a young adult animation[70] and the NATAS gave out various Emmys for young adult programs, like Tangled, differentiating them from children's animation and preschool animation.[71][72] 2020 was the first year that NATAS gave a Daytime Emmy for young adult programs, which includes shows "targeting a tween and teen audience."[73] Then, on October 22, Radford "Rad" Sechrist, the series creator of Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts floated the idea of a streaming service creating "a dedicated YA animation division," stating that it would have shows like Kipo, along with a "dedicated YA team to target that audience."[74] He also suggested that this could be a way for smaller streaming services to distinguish themselves, saying that while animators are trying to target kids with their all-ages animation, that "young adult is wide open," calling it an "untapped market."[75] Matt Braly, creator of Amphibia, and Owen Dennis, the creator of Infinity Train, concurred. Braly stated that a lot of "YA animated content" is deemed too old for the 6-11 age group, but "too young for "adult" animation," calling it a "purgatory" while Dennis argued that it would help creators so they would not be boxed in by executives.[76] Giancarlo Volpe, an Italian-American animator, director, producer and comic creator also agreed with Sechrist's suggestion.[77] Later on, Sechrist said that his suggestion would only become a reality if someone thought "outside the box," acknowledged that the market for YA animation "appears small," and noted that he had several YA shows in development, but had nowhere to "take them."[76] He also used Hunger Games as an example of young adult fiction when discussing young adult animation.[78] Others also argued that Kipo was a young adult animation, like reviewer Dean Daley.[79]

In November 2020, a press release from Adult Swim stated that the programming block offers "animated and live-action series for young adults."[80][81] The same month it was reported that ViacomCBS International Studios was looking for programs which "reflect the world authentically in which a kid lives," especially dramas, anthologies and "young-adult content" for those over age 14, which could be referring to young adult animation.[82] Additionally, an article in an Indian publication, The Miracle Tech, described the anime series My Hero Academia as a "superhero animated show for teenagers."[83] The same month, Rad Sechist tweeted about young adult animation once more, arguing that HBO has potential to "promote and keep creating for a YA market" with shows such as Infinity Train and Close Enough but is not doing so.[84] He also called shows like Infinity Train hidden gems which are "only discovered by word of mouth"[85] and asked people to imagine "a slightly aged up Avatar Air Bender type show" or Kipo which was "slightly aged up."[86] Around the same time, critic Zeid Abughazaleh wrote in CBR about the revival of Young Justice,[87] originally cancelled in 2013 but brought back in a third season titled Young Justice: Outsiders and fourth season titled Young Justice: Phantoms, noting that it has a more serious nature like Batman: The Animated Series, tackling "superhero issues with grounded stories and long-term consequences."[88] It was also reported that Amy Friedman, the new person heading "kids and family programming" for Warner Bros. would be reporting to Tom Ascheim,[89][90] the president of the "Global Kids, Young Adults, and Classics" (GKYAC) at Warner Bros, which had been restructured in August,[91] with Ascheim joining the company in summer 2020.[92] Under the GKYAC division are Cartoon Network, Cartoon Network Studios, Adult Swim, and Williams Street. Also, Williams Street Records, Toonami, Adult Swim Games, Boomerang, and Turner Classic Movies are in the same division. The Warner Bros. division says that it wants to be the "premiere global provider of kids, family, young adults, and classics content and brands."[93]

In early December it was announced that Adult Swim was picking up a new series titled Teenage Euthanasia co-created by Alissa Nutting and Alyson Levy, with the programming block described as a "destination for young adults."[94] Around the same time, two other series aimed at young adults were noted. This included a 2D-animated series titled "Highlands Shadow," directed by Paula Boffo and produced by Ojo Raro, which will be eight episodes long, at Ventana Sur’s Animation![95] This series addresses "gender and LGBTIQ+ issues," by focusing on Juana, "a girl from Humahuaca whose sister Marisol has been captured by a human trafficking cartel," who allies with "two haunted machetes" and becomes a superheroine. Another series that aims at a YA audience is "Cursed Fathers," a 2D feature created by Matisse González of Bolivia. It focuses on a "narrative comedy about an exquisitely damned family," including a young daughter named Kiki within a huge family and embarking on a journey to find out whether a curse afflicting his family is "real and to put a stop to it." On December 8, 2020, Sechrist still expressed support for HBO Max creating "a section for YA animation."[96] When the upcoming animated movie for a Diary of a Wimpy Kid was announced, the latter was described as a "young adult series."[97] On December 14, Cartoon Network and the National Black Justice Coalition released a comic which highlighted "the power and importance of respecting gender identity through the use of gender pronouns," with the comic designed by those who were part of the NBJC Youth and Young Adult Action Council (YYAAC), those from Cartoon Network Studios, and Dr. Kia Darling-Hammond, the NBJC’s director of education programs and research.[98] The comic features characters such as Craig from Craig of the Creek, Chloe from We Bare Bears and Stevonnie from Steven Universe. In January 2021, HBO Max debuted an animation page, which included adult animation, older cartoons, and "animation dedicated to teens and young adults."[99]

In 2022, Hugh Laurie and Emilia Clarke are set to lead the cast in an animated film titled The Amazing Maurice based on Terry Pratchett's 2001 novel, The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents. It is said that this film is specifically targeted toward the young adult audience.[100]

See also

References
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Bibliography
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