Akwesasne

The Battle of the Cedars (French: Les Cèdres) was a series of military confrontations, early in the American Revolutionary War, which involved limited combat. The actions took place between May 19 and 27, 1776, at and around Les Cèdres, Quebec (located 28 mi (45 km) west of Montreal), in the later stages of the American colonial invasion of Quebec that began in September 1775. No casualties occurred.

Claude de Lorimier, a British Indian agent from Montreal, traveled west to Oswegatchie (Ogdensburg, New York), where there was a fort garrisoned by a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of British Captain George Forster.[14] De Lorimier proposed recruiting some Indians to launch an attack on Montreal, then held by the American Continental Army, from the west. When Forster agreed, Lorimier went to Akwesasne, where he recruited 100 warriors for battle. The British-allied forces took some American prisoners during the encounters, but these were later freed.

In the early 1800s, non-indigenous settlers leased a part of the Akwesnasne reserve located in mainland Quebec, known as Dundee. In 1888, the superintendent of Indian Affairs requested that the band surrender this land. A surrender was given, but the first nation always contested its validity, as it was not their intention to surrender the land. In December 2018, the First Nation of Akwesnasne accepted a specific claim settlement of $240M for the Dundee parcel, 37 years after the claim was first filed with the government of Canada.[15]

Kana꞉takon School, originally called the Saint Regis Village School, was run by the Catholic Sisters of Saint Anne until the 1970s. Today, the mission is still active and includes a rectory, the large stone church dating to 1795, and a cemetery. Parish records show that the Jesuits respected Mohawk traditions, recording their Mohawk names through the 18th and 19th centuries, even after they had also taken European names.[16]

The Roman Catholic parish at Akwesasne falls under three dioceses because of international borders and provincial boundaries: the Diocese of Alexandria-Cornwall and the Diocese of Valleyfield in Canada, and the Diocese of Ogdensburg in New York.

Following passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the United States federal government encouraged the tribe to adopt a constitution and elected government. The Mohawk chose to retain their traditional system of chiefs.[16]

In the 1940s Ernest Benedict founded Akwesasne's first newspaper, Kawehras! ("It Thunders!"). Benedict covered the resistance of many Mohawk to the system of elections imposed by the federal government on the "American" side of Akwesasne; it insisted on representative elections. On May 24, 1948, a vote was held in which "The Six Nations Chiefs," based on historic clans and hereditary office; received 83 votes, as opposed to "The Elected Chiefs", who received 1; and "The Seven Nations Chiefs," who did not receive any votes. The elected chiefs resigned from office, but the federal government continued to require the tribe to hold elections.[16]

Both the federal government and New York State encouraged the tribe to adopt representative elected government, but they resisted. They were put on the congressional list for termination in the 1950s, as part of a policy assuming that assimilation was best for Native Americans, but Congress did not approve the termination of the St. Regis Reservation.[16]

In 1969 Benedict founded the North American Indian Travelling College (now known as the Native North American Travelling College), which serves as a cultural centre, publishing house, and resource for classes and lectures at Akwesasne and beyond. It operates an art gallery and theatre at Akwesasne.[17]

In the late 1960s, a period of heightened Native American activism, Benedict also started Akwesasne Notes, which was highly influential and became the largest native newspaper in the world.[18] Among its noted features were a series of posters included as centrefolds. A supporter gave the newspaper Edward Curtis photographs, which editors combined with quotes from Native American authors for the popular poster series.[19]

In 1987, the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment was founded in response to environmental concerns, including PCB contamination from industries located along the St. Lawrence River.[20]

In the 1990s, the people of Akwesasne raised money in a variety of ways to fund a renovation of their St. Regis Church. They wrote a history of the church and its priests.

Akwesasne borders the towns of Brasher, New York, Fort Covington, New York and Bombay, New York. Sections of the southeastern portion of Akwesasne are considered by the Town of Bombay to be within the town's jurisdiction but the tribe disputes this. To the west is the Town of Massena, New York. Many islands in the St. Lawrence River are part of Akwesasne. Generally the Akwesasro꞉non are majority English-speaking in daily use.

The Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (MNCC, colloquially "the Longhouse") is the "traditional" governing and religious body of the Mohawk (Kahniakehaka) people. The MNCC operates as a member nation of the Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee.[21]

The Mohawk Council of Akwesasne (MCA) is a government whose representatives are elected within the northern districts of the territory claimed by Canada. The MCA was developed from the Indian Bands system introduced by the Indian Act of Canada and the Act's historical and legal predecessors.[22] They are known to Canada as Mohawks of Akwesasne Bands 59 and 15.

The MCA operates as a non-partisan, representative democracy, divided into three geographic and administrative districts. The districts are Kana꞉takon (Saint Regis, Quebec), Kawehno꞉ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) and Tsi꞉Snaihne (Snye, Quebec).[23] The several islands of the St. Lawrence River within the jurisdiction of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne are generally counted as being a part of the nearest mainland.

General elections are held tri-annually, with 12 representatives (Chiefs) chosen from the districts and one Grand Chief. Each district elects four Chiefs, and all districts vote to elect a Grand Chief; making a council of 12 plus 1.[23] A by-election may also be held if one or more of the seats become vacant.

Grand Chief

• Abram Benedict

Kana:takon District Chiefs

• Theresa Jacobs
• Julie Phillips-Jacobs
• Darryl "Kermit" Lazore
• Timothy "Dooley" Thompson

Tsi:Snaihne District Chiefs

• Joe Lazore
• Tobi Mitchell
• Connie Lazore
• April Adams-Phillips

Kawehno:ke District Chiefs

• Vince Thompson
• Carolyn Francis
• Edward Roundpoint

The Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (SRMT) is a government elected by Mohawk Tribal residents of the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation, a southern district of the territory within the border of the United States. The SRMT operates as a Constitutional republic. The Tribal Council is composed of three Chiefs, three Sub-Chiefs, and a Tribal Clerk. Elections are held each year on the first Saturday of June to choose one Chief and one Sub-Chief for a three-year term. The Tribal Clerk is chosen every third year.

• Chief Beverly Cook
• Chief Eric Thompson
• Chief Michael L. Conners
• Sub-Chief Benjamin J. Herne
• Sub-Chief Agnes 'Sweets' Jacobs
• Sub-Chief Ken Jock
• Tribal Clerk Summer Bero
• Chief Judge Carrie Garrow
• Traffic Court Judge #1 Lois Terrance
• Traffic Court Judge #2 Victor Martin
• Chief Legal Counsel Dale White

In 1960 First Nations people were enfranchised in Canada. In 1985 Status Indians who voted in a Canadian election were allowed to retain their status. Previously they would have become non-Status, as per the Indian Act. It is uncertain how many Akwesasronon participate in Canadian elections.

Akwesasne is currently represented in Canada's Parliament by:

• Claude DeBellefeuille -Bloc Québécois (Salaberry—Suroît, Quebec)
• Eric Duncan -Conservative (Stormont-Dundas-South Glengarry, Ontario)

In 1924 Native Americans were enfranchised in the United States if they had not been previously; by that time, two-thirds were already citizens. During the era of Indian Removal of the 1830s, Native Americans who chose to stay in historic territories became state and federal citizens; those who moved with their tribes to Indian Territory were not considered citizens. As Native American lands were purchased during the nineteenth century and Native land claims were extinguished, more were classified as US citizens as they moved to reservations.

Akwesasne is represented in the United States Senate by:

• United States Senator Charles Schumer (D- NY)
• United States Senator Kirsten Gillibrand (D- NY)

Akwesasne is represented in the United States House of Representatives by:

• United States Representative: Elise Stefanik (R-21st, NY)

Akwesasne is represented in the New York State Assembly by:

• New York State Representative Janet Duprey

Akwesasne is represented in the New York Senate by:

• New York State Senator Betty Little

97.3 CKON-FM is the community radio station. It first went on air on September 29, 1984. CKON is owned and operated by the Akwesasne Communication Society, a community-based non-profit group.[25] It has a country music format, and also has adult contemporary music during evenings, a free format on Fridays, and oldies on Sundays.

CKON also broadcasts coverage of home and away games of the Cornwall Colts and Akwesasne Wolves hockey teams and of the Akwesasne Lightning lacrosse team.

Akwesasne has a radio station, known as "Karennaon: we" and transmits at 87.9 MHz on the FM dial.[26]

• Akwesasne Notes[27][28]
• Indian Time Newspaper[29]
• Akwesasne TV[30]

In the winter of 1969, Cornwall City Police were confronted by a demonstration by Akwesasro꞉non at the North Channel Bridge of what is now called the Three Nations Crossing. By blocking traffic on the bridge, Akwesasro꞉non sought to call attention to their grievance that they were prohibited by Canadian authorities from duty-free passage of personal purchases across the border, a right they claimed was established by the 1795 Jay Treaty.[32] Future Grand Chief Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell, then a part of the National Film Board of Canada's pioneering "Indian Film Crew" unit, directed an NFB documentary about the protest, entitled You Are on Indian Land.[33]

The NYC Ya Basta Collective was a group of anti-globalization activists, based primarily in New York City, active from roughly October 2000 through October 2001.

Initiated in October 2000 by L. Fantoni and T. F. G. Casper on the heels of the anti-International Monetary Fund/World Bank protests in Prague, a collective soon formed and developed its own variation of the Tute Bianche tactic of the padded bloc. The collective organized several actions and events highlighting the inadequacy of borders, in support of immigrant rights and against racism and racialist hate groups.

In April 2001, this collective, along with the Direct Action Network, was active in organizing a US / Canada border crossing over the Three Nations Crossing. This event preceded demonstrations surrounding the 3rd Summit of the Americas, a summit held in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. An estimated 500 anti-globalists, along with a few Akwesasro꞉non, challenged the legitimacy of the US/Canada border. Although the Collective peacefully crossed into Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, they never made it to Quebec City. Most of the activists who participated in the action at the border and attempted to enter Canadian territory were turned away by Canada Border Service agents and prevented from attending the protests in Quebec City.

On 1 June 2009, Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) border services officers at the Cornwall Port of Entry walked off the job in response to encampments of Akwesasro꞉non across the road from the customs facility. The latter were protesting Canada's arming of CBSA border services officers.[34][35] The encampment, styled as a "unity rally", was branded as a campaign to bring awareness to complaints of alleged human rights abuses committed against Akwesasro꞉non by the CBSA border services officers.

The protest continued for several days but reached its peak at midnight of 1 June, when the new policy of arming border services officers with Beretta Px4 Storm sidearms went into effect. The border services officers left at the end of their shift. A new shift did not arrive, leaving the port of entry vacant.[36]

Cornwall City Police blockaded the north terminus of the Three Nations Bridge to deny travelers entry into Canada. At the request of Canada, the New York State Police likewise blocked access from the United States onto the bridge. Akwesasne was cut off from its major access point into Canada and from free travel within the territory until a temporary border post was erected on July 13, 2009.

Police, border patrol, state troopers, RCMP, and various government agents blocked the road leading to the homes on Cornwall Island, Ontario, from May 2009 until July 2009. Each time any Mohawk attempted to leave their homes or return to their homes in Akwesasne, they were interrogated by government agents. Some Mohawk moved out of their homes because of the stress of this situation. Other residents were ordered to pay costs of $1000 each time CBSA agents chose to impound their vehicles, sometimes more than once per day when residents needed to use their vehicles for several trips. Some residents traveled instead by boat to seek medical attention, or purchase water, and groceries.

The area has been the scene of several disputes on the rights of the residents to cross the border unimpeded. These issues have been a concern for Canadian authorities, as the area is alleged to be a large-scale, cigarette-smuggling route from the U.S.[37] There have been arrests and seizure of goods in the past. There are also concerns about smuggling of drugs, liquor, and migrants.

In addition, residents of Akwesasne have been divided over governance and which political factions they support. Political rivalries were expressed as one group brought gambling onto the reserve, bringing huge returns to casino owners. In 1989 unidentified suspects threw firebombs at a chartered bus. In a separate incident, someone used a shotgun to fire at a bus in the customs area.[37]

The political feuds have led to violence: two Mohawk men were killed at Akwesasne in 1990, and thousands of residents left their homes in that period because of attacks on houses and vehicles, and general unrest. The Warrior Society, a self-appointed security force, used assault rifles and bats to break up anti-gambling roadblocks at the reservation entrances. They threatened to shoot any outside law enforcement officials if they entered the reservation.[38]