Book of Leviticus

The English name Leviticus comes from the Latin Leviticus, which is in turn from the Ancient Greek: Λευιτικόν,[2] Leuitikon, referring to the priestly tribe of the Israelites, “Levi.” The Greek expression is in turn a variant of the rabbinic Hebrew torat kohanim,[3] "law of priests", as many of its laws relate to priests.[4]

In Hebrew the book is called Vayikra (Hebrew: וַיִּקְרָא‎), from the opening of the book, va-yikra "And He [God] called."[3]

The outlines from commentaries are similar, though not identical; compare those of Wenham, Hartley, Milgrom, and Watts.[5][6][7][8]

I. Laws on sacrifice (1:1–7:38)

A. Instructions for the laity on bringing offerings (1:1–6:7)

1–5. The types of offering: burnt, cereal, peace, purification, reparation (or sin) offerings (ch. 1–5)

B. Instructions for the priests (6:1–7:38)

1–6. The various offerings, with the addition of the priests' cereal offering (6:1–7:36)

7. Summary (7:37–38)

II. Institution of the priesthood (8:1–10:20)

A. Ordination of Aaron and his sons (ch. 8)

B. Aaron makes the first sacrifices (ch. 9)

C. Judgement on Nadab and Abihu (ch. 10)

III. Uncleanliness and its treatment (11:1–15:33)

A. Unclean animals (ch. 11)

B. Childbirth as a source of uncleanliness (ch. 12)

C. Unclean diseases (ch. 13)

D. Cleansing of diseases (ch. 14)

E. Unclean discharges (ch. 15)

IV. Day of Atonement: purification of the tabernacle from the effects of uncleanliness and sin (ch. 16)

V. Prescriptions for practical holiness (the Holiness Code, chs. 17–26)

A. Sacrifice and food (ch. 17)

B. Sexual behaviour (ch. 18)

C. Neighbourliness (ch.19)

D. Grave crimes (ch. 20)

E. Rules for priests (ch. 21)

F. Rules for eating sacrifices (ch. 22)

G. Festivals (ch.23)

H. Rules for the tabernacle (ch. 24:1–9)

I. Blasphemy (ch. 24:10–23)

J. Sabbatical and Jubilee years (ch. 25)

K. Exhortation to obey the law: blessing and curse (ch. 26)

VI. Redemption of votive gifts (ch. 27)

Vaikro – Book of Leviticus, Warsaw edition, 1860, page 1

Chapters 1–5 describe the various sacrifices from the sacrificers' point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood. Chapters 6–7 go over much the same ground, but from the point of view of the priest, who, as the one actually carrying out the sacrifice and dividing the "portions", needs to know how to do this. Sacrifices are between God, the priest, and the offerers, although in some cases the entire sacrifice is a single portion to God—i.e., burnt to ashes.[9]

Chapters 8–10 describe how Moses consecrates Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, and God's destruction of two of Aaron's sons for ritual offenses. The purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood (i.e., those priests with power to offer sacrifices to God) as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position.[10]

With sacrifice and priesthood established, chapters 11–15 instruct the lay people on purity (or cleanliness). Eating certain animals produces uncleanliness, as does giving birth; certain skin diseases (but not all) are unclean, as are certain conditions affecting walls and clothing (mildew and similar conditions); and genital discharges, including female menses and male gonorrhea, are unclean. The reasoning behind the food rules are obscure; for the rest the guiding principle seems to be that all these conditions involve a loss of "life force", usually but not always blood.[11]

Leviticus 16 concerns the Day of Atonement. This is the only day on which the High Priest is to enter the holiest part of the sanctuary, the holy of holies. He is to sacrifice a bull for the sins of the priests, and a goat for the sins of the laypeople. The priest is to send a second goat into the desert to "Azazel", bearing the sins of the whole people. Azazel may be a wilderness-demon, but its identity is mysterious.[12]

Chapters 17–26 are the Holiness code. It begins with a prohibition on all slaughter of animals outside the Temple, even for food, and then prohibits a long list of sexual contacts and also child sacrifice. The "holiness" injunctions which give the code its name begin with the next section: there are penalties for the worship of Molech, consulting mediums and wizards, cursing one's parents and engaging in unlawful sex. Priests receive instruction on mourning rituals and acceptable bodily defects. The punishment for blasphemy is death, and there is the setting of rules for eating sacrifices; there is an explanation of the calendar, and there are rules for sabbatical and Jubilee years; there are rules for oil lamps and bread in the sanctuary; and there are rules for slavery.[13] The code ends by telling the Israelites they must choose between the law and prosperity on the one hand, or, on the other, horrible punishments, the worst of which will be expulsion from the land.[14]

Chapter 27 is a disparate and probably late addition telling about persons and things serving as dedication to the Lord and how one can redeem, instead of fulfill, vows.[15]

The Tabernacle and the Camp (19th-century drawing)

The majority of scholars have concluded that the Pentateuch received its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BC).[16] Nevertheless, Leviticus had a long period of growth before reaching that form.[17]

The entire composition of the book of Leviticus is Priestly literature.[18] Most scholars see chapters 1–16 (the Priestly code) and chapters 17–26 (the Holiness code) as the work of two related schools, but while the Holiness material employs the same technical terms as the Priestly code, it broadens their meaning from pure ritual to the theological and moral, turning the ritual of the Priestly code into a model for the relationship of Israel to God: as the tabernacle, which is apart from uncleanliness, becomes holy by the presence of the Lord, so He will dwell among Israel when Israel receives purification (becomes holy) and separates from other peoples.[19] The ritual instructions in the Priestly code apparently grew from priests giving instruction and answering questions about ritual matters; the Holiness code (or H) used to be a separate document, later becoming part of Leviticus, but it seems better to think of the Holiness authors as editors who worked with the Priestly code and actually produced Leviticus as we now have it.[20]

Portion of the Temple Scroll

Leviticus, as part of the Torah, became the law book of Jerusalem's Second Temple as well as of the Samaritan temple. Evidence of its influence is evident among the Dead Sea Scrolls, which included fragments of seventeen manuscripts of Leviticus dating from the third to the first centuries BC.[39] Many other Qumran scrolls cite the book, especially the Temple Scroll and 4QMMT.

Jews and Christians have not observed Leviticus's instructions for animal offerings since the first century AD. Because of the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD, Jewish worship has focused on prayer and the study of Torah. Nevertheless, Leviticus constitutes a major source of Jewish law and is traditionally the first book children learn in the Rabbinic system of education. There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus—the halakhic one (Sifra) and a more aggadic one (Vayikra Rabbah).

The New Testament, particularly the Epistle to the Hebrews, uses ideas and images from Leviticus to describe Christ as the high priest who offers his own blood as a sin offering.[33] Therefore, Christians do not make animal offerings either, as Gordon Wenham summarized: "With the death of Christ the only sufficient 'burnt offering' was offered once and for all, and therefore the animal sacrifices which foreshadowed Christ's sacrifice were made obsolete."[40]

Christians generally have the view that the New Covenant supersedes (i.e., replaces) the Old Testament's ritual laws, which includes many of the rules in Leviticus. Christians therefore have usually not observed Leviticus' rules regarding diet, purity, and agriculture. Christian teachings have differed, however, as to where to draw the line between ritual and moral regulations.[41]

In Homilies on Leviticus Origen expounds on the qualities of priests: to be perfect in everything, strict, wise and to examine themselves individually, forgive sins, and convert sinners (by words and by doctrine).[42]

A Torah scroll and silver pointer (yad) used in reading.

For detailed contents see:

• Vayikra, on Leviticus 1–5: Laws of the sacrifices
• Tzav, on Leviticus 6–8: Sacrifices, ordination of the priests
• Shemini, on Leviticus 9–11: Concecration of tabernacle, alien fire, dietary laws
• Tazria, on Leviticus 12–13: Childbirth, skin disease, clothing
• Metzora, on Leviticus 14–15: Skin disease, unclean houses, genital discharges
• Acharei Mot, on Leviticus 16–18: Yom Kippur, centralized offerings, sexual practices
• Kedoshim, on Leviticus 19–20: Holiness, penalties for transgressions
• Emor, on Leviticus 21–24: Rules for priests, holy days, lights and bread, a blasphemer
• Behar, on Leviticus 25–25: Sabbatical year, debt servitude limited
• Bechukotai, on Leviticus 26–27: Blessings and curses, payment of vows

• 613 commandments
• En-Gedi Scroll
• Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll
• Liberty Bell

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Online versions of Leviticus:

• Hebrew:
  • Leviticus at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
  • Leviticus (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org
  • Vayikra—Levitichius (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
  • ויקרא Vayikra—Leviticus (Hebrew—English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
• Christian translations:
  • The Book of Leviticus, Douay Rheims Version, with Bishop Challoner Commentaries
  • Online Bible at GospelHall.org (King James Version)
  • Online Audio and Classic Bible at Bible-Book.org (King James Version)
  • oremus Bible Browser (New Revised Standard Version)
  • oremus Bible Browser (Anglicized New Revised Standard Version)
  • Leviticus public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions

Related article:

• Book of Leviticus article (Jewish Encyclopedia)
• The Literary Structure of Leviticus (chaver.com)

Brief introduction

• Leviticus