Citizen science

Other definitions for citizen science have also been proposed. For example, Bruce Lewenstein of Cornell University's Communication and S&TS departments describes 3 possible definitions:[27]

• The participation of nonscientists in the process of gathering data according to specific scientific protocols and in the process of using and interpreting that data.[27]
• The engagement of nonscientists in true decision-making about policy issues that have technical or scientific components.[27]
• The engagement of research scientists in the democratic and policy process.[27]

Scientists and scholars who have used other definitions include Frank N. von Hippel, Stephen Schneider, Neal Lane and Jon Beckwith.[28][29][30] Other alternative terminologies proposed are "civic science" and "civic scientist".[31]

Further, Muki Haklay offers an overview of the typologies of the level of citizen participation in citizen science, which range from "crowdsourcing" (level 1), where the citizen acts as a sensor, to "distributed intelligence" (level 2), where the citizen acts as a basic interpreter, to "participatory science", where citizens contribute to problem definition and data collection (level 3), to "extreme citizen science", which involves collaboration between the citizen and scientists in problem definition, collection and data analysis.[32]

A 2014 Mashable article defines a citizen scientist as: "Anybody who voluntarily contributes his or her time and resources toward scientific research in partnership with professional scientists."[33]

In 2016 the Australian Citizen Science Association released their definition which states "Citizen science involves public participation and collaboration in scientific research with the aim to increase scientific knowledge."[34][35]

In 2016, the book "Analyzing the Role of Citizen Science in Modern Research" defined citizen science as "work undertaken by civic educators together with citizen communities to advance science, foster a broad scientific mentality, and/or encourage democratic engagement, which allows society to deal rationally with complex modern problems".[36]

In a Smart City era, Citizen Science relays on various web-based tools (eg.WebGIS) and becomes Cyber Citizen Science.[37] Some projects, such as SETI@home, use the Internet to take advantage of distributed computing. These projects are generally passive. Computation tasks are performed by volunteers' computers and require little involvement beyond initial setup. There is disagreement as to whether these projects should be classified as citizen science.

The astrophysicist and Galaxy Zoo co-founder Kevin Schawinski stated: "We prefer to call this [Galaxy Zoo] citizen science because it's a better description of what you're doing; you're a regular citizen but you're doing science. Crowd sourcing sounds a bit like, well, you're just a member of the crowd and you're not; you're our collaborator. You're pro-actively involved in the process of science by participating."[38]

Compared to SETI@home, "Galaxy Zoo volunteers do real work. They're not just passively running something on their computer and hoping that they'll be the first person to find aliens. They have a stake in science that comes out of it, which means that they are now interested in what we do with it, and what we find."[38]

Citizen policy may be another result of citizen science initiatives. Bethany Brookshire (pen name SciCurious) writes: "If citizens are going to live with the benefits or potential consequences of science (as the vast majority of them will), it's incredibly important to make sure that they are not only well informed about changes and advances in science and technology, but that they also ... are able to ... influence the science policy decisions that could impact their lives."[39] In The Rightful Place of Science: Citizen Science, editors Darlene Cavalier and Eric Kennedy, highlight emerging connections between citizen science, civic science, and participatory technology assessment. [40]

Citizen involvement in scientific projects has become a means of encouraging curiosity and greater understanding of science whilst providing an unprecedented engagement between professional scientists and the general public.[4] In a research report published by the National Park Service in 2008, Brett Amy Thelen and Rachel K. Thiet mention the following concerns, previously reported in the literature, about the validity of volunteer-generated data:[41][42]

• Some projects may not be suitable for volunteers, for instance, when they use complex research methods or require a lot of (often repetitive) work.[41]
• If volunteers lack proper training in research and monitoring protocols, they are at risk of introducing bias into the data.[41]

The question of data accuracy, in particular, remains open.[43] John Losey, who created the Lost Ladybug citizen science project, has argued that the cost-effectiveness of citizen science data can outweigh data quality issues, if properly managed.[44]

In December 2016, authors M. Kosmala, A. Wiggins, A. Swanson and B. Simmons published a study in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment called "Assessing Data Quality in Citizen Science".[45] The abstract describes how ecological and environmental CS projects have enormous potential to advance science. Also, CS projects can influence policy and guide resource management by producing datasets that are otherwise infeasible to generate.[45] In the section "In a Nutshell" (pg3), four condensed conclusions are stated. They are:[45]

1. Datasets produced by volunteer CSs can have reliably high quality, on par with those produced by professionals.
2. Individual volunteer accuracy varies, depending on task difficulty and volunteer experience. Multiple methods exist for boosting accuracy to required levels for a given project.
3. Most types of bias found in CS datasets are also found in professionally produced datasets and can be accommodated using existing statistical tools.
4. Reviewers of CS projects should look for iterated project design, standardization and appropriateness of volunteer protocols and data analyses, capture of metadata, and accuracy assessment.

They conclude that as CS continues to grow and mature, a key metric of project success they expect to see will be a growing awareness of data quality. They also conclude that CS will emerge as a general tool helping "to collect otherwise unobtainable high-quality data in support of policy and resource management, conservation monitoring, and basic science."[45]

A study of Canadian lepidoptera datasets published in 2018 compared the use of a professionally curated dataset of butterfly specimen records with four years of data from a CS program, eButterfly.[46][47] The eButterfly dataset was used as it was determined to be of high quality because of the expert vetting process used on the site, and there existed a historic dataset covering the same geographic area consisting of specimen data, much of it institutional. The authors note that, in this case, CS data provides both novel and complementary information to the specimen data. Five new species were reported from the CS data, and geographic distribution information was improved for over 80% of species in the combined dataset when CS data was included.

Amateur astronomers can build their own equipment and can hold star parties and gatherings, such as Stellafane.

Astronomy has long been a field where amateurs have contributed throughout time, all the way up to the present day.[81]

Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep-sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Observations of comets and stars are also used to measure the local level of artificial skyglow.[82][83] One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Many amateurs like to specialize in the observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.[84][85]

The American Association of Variable Star Observers has gathered data on variable stars for educational and professional analysis since 1911 and promotes participation beyond its membership on its Citizen Sky website.[86]

Butterfly counts have a long tradition of involving individuals in the study of butterflies' range and their relative abundance. Two long-running programs are the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (started in 1976) and the North American Butterfly Association's Butterfly Count Program (started in 1975).[87][88] There are various protocols for monitoring butterflies and different organizations support one or more of transects, counts and/or opportunistic sightings.[89] eButterfly is an example of a program designed to capture any of the three types of counts for observers in North America. Species-specific programs also exist, with monarchs the prominent example.[90] Two examples of this involve the counting of monarch butterflies during the fall migration to overwintering sites in Mexico: (1) Monarch Watch is a continent-wide project, while (2) the Cape May Monarch Monitoring Project is an example of a local project.[91][92] The Austrian project Viel-Falter investigated if and how trained and supervised pupils are able to systematically collect data about the occurrence of diurnal butterflies, and how this data could contribute to a permanent butterfly monitoring system. Despite substantial identification uncertainties for some species or species groups, the data collected by pupils was successfully used to predict the general habitat quality for butterflies.[93]

Citizen science projects have become increasingly focused on providing benefits to scientific research.[94][95][96] The North American Bird Phenology Program (historically called the Bird Migration and Distribution records) may have been the earliest collective effort of citizens collecting ornithological information in the U.S.[97] The program, dating back to 1883, was started by Wells Woodbridge Cooke. Cooke established a network of observers around North America to collect bird migration records. The Audubon Society's Christmas Bird Count, which began in 1900, is another example of a long-standing tradition of citizen science which has persisted to the present day. Citizen scientists help gather data that will be analyzed by professional researchers, and can be used to produce bird population and biodiversity indicators.

Raptor migration research relies on the data collected by the hawkwatching community. This mostly volunteer group counts migrating accipiters, buteos, falcons, harriers, kites, eagles, osprey, vultures and other raptors at hawk sites throughout North America during the spring and fall seasons.[98] The daily data is uploaded to hawkcount.org where it can be viewed by professional scientists and the public.

Such indices can be useful tools to inform management, resource allocation, policy and planning.[99] For example, European breeding bird survey data provide input for the Farmland Bird Index, adopted by the European Union as a structural indicator of sustainable development.[100] This provides a cost-effective alternative to government monitoring.

Similarly, data collected by citizen scientists as part of BirdLife Australia's has been analysed to produce the first-ever Australian Terrestrial Bird Indices.[101]

The concept of citizen science has been extended to the ocean environment for characterizing ocean dynamics and tracking marine debris. For example, the mobile app Marine Debris Tracker is a joint partnership of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the University of Georgia.[102] Long term sampling efforts such as the continuous plankton recorder has been fitted on ships of opportunity since 1931. Plankton collection by sailors and subsequent genetic analysis was pioneered in 2013 by Indigo V Expeditions as a way to better understand marine microbial structure and function.[103]

Citizen science in Coral reef studies developed in the 21st century.

Underwater photography has become more popular since the development of moderate priced digital cameras with waterproof housings in the early 2000s, resulting on millions of pictures posted every year on various websites and social media. This mass of documentation has great scientific potential, as millions of tourists possess a much superior coverage power than professional scientists, who cannot spend so much time in the field.

As a consequence, several participative sciences programs have been developed, supported by geotagging and identification web sites (such as iNaturalist.org). The Monitoring through many eyes project collates thousands of underwater images of the Great Barrier Reef and provides an interface for elicitation of reef health indicators.[104]

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) also offers opportunities for volunteer participation. By taking measurements in The United States' National Marine Sanctuaries, citizens contribute data to marine biology projects. In 2016, NOAA benefited from 137,000 hours of research.[105]

There also exist protocols for auto-organization and self-teaching aimed at biodiversity-interested snorkelers, in order for them to turn their observations into sound scientific data, available for research. This kind of approach has been successfully used in Réunion island, allowing for tens of new records and even new species.[106]

Aquarium hobbyists and their respective organizations are very passionate about fish conservation and often more knowledgeable about specific fish species and groups than scientific researchers.[107][108] They have played an important role in the conservation of freshwater fishes by discovering new species, maintaining extensive databases with ecological information on thousands of species (such as for catfish,[109] Mexican freshwater fishes,[110] killifishes,[111] cichlids[112]), and successfully keeping and providing endangered and extinct-in-the-wild species for conservation projects.[113][114] The CARES (Conservation, Awareness, Recognition, Encouragement, and Support) preservation program[115] is the largest hobbyist organization containing over 30 aquarium societies and international organizations, and encourages serious aquarium hobbyists to devote tank space to the most threatened or extinct-in-the-wild species to ensure their survival for future generations. The CARES program contains over 500 species of freshwater fish, including 85 species which are currently undescribed by scientists and 30 species thought to be extinct in the wild.[107] Due to their considerable knowledge, these citizen scientists have their own risk classification, with many differing from the IUCN's risk classification, including a third of extinct-in-the-wild CARES species which were classified as least concern by the IUCN.[107]

The Tasmania-based Reef Life Survey project uses recreational divers train to make fish counts, invertebrate counts along a 50m approximately constant depth transect on tropical and temperate reefs, which may include coral reef. Reef Life Survey is a marine life monitoring programme[116] based in Hobart, Tasmania. It is international in scope, but predominantly Australian, as a large proportion of the volunteers are Australian. Most of the surveys are done by volunteer recreational divers, collecting biodiversity data for marine conservation. The database is available to marine ecology researchers, and is used by several marine protected area managements in Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa and the eastern Pacific.[117][118]

Farmer participation in experiments has a long tradition in agricultural science.[119] There are many opportunities for citizen engagement in different parts of food systems.[120] Citizen science is actively used for crop variety selection for climate adaptation, involving thousands of farmers.[121]

Citizen science has a long tradition in Natural science. But nowadays, citizen science projects can also be found in various fields of science like Art history. For example, the Zooniverse project AnnoTate is a transcription tool developed to enable volunteers to read and transcribe the personal papers of British-born and émigré artists.[122] The papers are drawn from the Tate Archive. Another example of citizen science in art history is ARTigo.[123] ARTigo collects semantic data on artworks from the footprints left by players of games featuring artwork images. From these footprints, ARTigo automatically builds a semantic search engine for artworks.

Distribution of citizen science data published to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) by taxa for countries in Northern Europe.

Citizen science has made significant contributions to the analysis of biodiversity across the world. A majority of data collected has been focused primarily on species occurrence, abundance and phenology with birds being primarily the most popular group observed[124] There is growing efforts to expand the use of citizen science across other fields. Past data on biodiversity has had limitations in the quantity of data to make any meaningful broad connections to losses in biodiversity. Recruiting citizens already out in the field opens a tremendous amount of new data. For example, thousands of farmers reporting the changes in biodiversity in their farms over many years has provided a large amount of relevant data concerning the effect of different farming methods on biodiversity.[125] Citizen science can be used to great effect in addition to the usual scientific methods in biodiversity monitoring. The typical active method of species detection is able to collect data on the broad biodiversity of areas while citizen science approaches has shown to be more effective at identifying invasive species.[126] In combination, this provides an effective strategy of monitoring the changes in biodiversity of ecosystems.

The Internet has been a boon to citizen science, particularly through gamification.[127] One of the first Internet-based citizen science experiments was NASA's Clickworkers, which enabled the general public to assist in the classification of images, greatly reducing the time to analyze large data sets. Another was the Citizen Science Toolbox, launched in 2003, of the Australian Coastal Collaborative Research Centre.[140] Mozak is a game in which players create 3D reconstructions from images of actual human and mouse neurons, helping to advance understanding of the brain. One of the largest citizen science games is Eyewire, a brain-mapping puzzle game developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology that now has over 200,000 players.[141] Another example is Quantum Moves, a game developed by the Center for Driven Community Research at Aarhus University, which uses online community efforts to solve quantum physics problems.[142][143] The solutions found by players can then be used in the lab to feed computational algorithms used in building a scalable quantum computer.

More generally, Amazon's Mechanical Turk is frequently used in the creation, collection, and processing of data by paid citizens.[144][145] There is controversy as to whether or not the data collected through such services is reliable, as it is subject to participants' desire for compensation.[146] However, use of Mechanical Turk tends to quickly produce more diverse participant backgrounds, as well as comparably accurate data when compared to traditional collection methods.[147]

The internet has also enabled citizen scientists to gather data to be analyzed by professional researchers. Citizen science networks are often involved in the observation of cyclic events of nature (phenology), such as effects of global warming on plant and animal life in different geographic areas,[148] and in monitoring programs for natural-resource management.[149][150][151] On BugGuide.Net, an online community of naturalists who share observations of arthropod, amateurs and professional researchers contribute to the analysis. By October 2014, BugGuide has over 808,718 images submitted by more than 27,846 contributors.[152]

An NASA/JPL image from the Zooniverse's The Milky Way Project showing a hierarchical bubble structure

Not counting iNaturalist and eBird,[153] the Zooniverse is home to the internet's largest, most popular and most successful citizen science projects.[154][155] The Zooniverse and the suite of projects it contains is produced, maintained and developed by the Citizen Science Alliance (CSA).[156] The member institutions of the CSA work with many academic and other partners around the world to produce projects that use the efforts and ability of volunteers to help scientists and researchers deal with the flood of data that confronts them. On 29 June 2015, the Zooniverse released a new software version with a project-building tool allowing any registered user to create a project.[157] Project owners may optionally complete an approval process to have their projects listed on the Zooniverse site and promoted to the Zooniverse community.[158] A NASA/JPL picture to the right gives an example from one of Zooniverse's projects The Milky Way Project.

The website CosmoQuest has as its goal "To create a community of people bent on together advancing our understanding of the universe; a community of people who are participating in doing science, who can explain why what they do matters, and what questions they are helping to answer.[159]

CrowdCrafting enables its participants to create and run projects where volunteers help with image classification, transcription, geocoding and more.[160] The platform is powered by PyBossa software, a free and open-source framework for crowdsourcing.[161]

Project Soothe is a citizen science research project based at the University of Edinburgh. The aim of this research is to create a bank of soothing images, submitted by members of the public, which can be used to help others through psychotherapy and research in the future. Since 2015, Project Soothe has received over 600 soothing photographs from people in 23 countries. Anyone aged 12 years or over are eligible to participate in this research in two ways: (1) By submitting soothing photos that they have taken with a description of why the images make them feel soothed (2) By rating the photos that have been submitted by people worldwide for their soothability. [162]

Sequential aspects of a Citizens’ Observatory programme.

The internet has allowed for many individuals to share and upload massive amounts of data. Using the internet citizen observatories have been designed as a platform to both increase citizen participation and knowledge of their surrounding environment by collecting whatever relevant data is focused by the program.[163] The idea is making it easier and more exciting for citizens to get and stay involved in local data collection.

The bandwidth and ubiquity afforded by smartphones has vastly expanded the opportunities for citizen science. Examples include iNaturalist, the San Francisco project, the WildLab, Project Noah,[164][165][166] and Aurorasurus. Due to their ubiquity, for example, Twitter, Facebook, and smartphones have been useful for citizen scientists, having enabled them to discover and propagate a new type of aurora dubbed "STEVE" in 2016.[167]

There are also apps for monitoring birds, marine wildlife and other organisms, and the "Loss of the Night".[168][169]

An Android app Sapelli is a mobile data-collection and -sharing platform designed with a particular focus on non-literate and illiterate users.[170] The SPOTTERON app creates synergy effects for projects by sharing a common feature set.[171]

"The Crowd and the Cloud" is a four-part series broadcast during April 2017, which examines citizen science.[172] It shows how smartphones, computers and mobile technology enable regular citizens to become part of a 21st-century way of doing science.[172] The programs also demonstrate how CSs help professional scientists to advance knowledge, which helps speed up new discoveries and innovations. The Crowd & The Cloud is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation.[172]

Since 1975, in order to improve earthquake detection and collect useful information, the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre monitors the visits of earthquake eyewitnesses to its website and relies on Facebook and Twitter.[173] More recently, they developed the LastQuake[174] mobile application which notifies users about earthquakes occurring around the world, alerts people when earthquakes hit near them, gathers earthquake eyewitnesses' testimonies to estimate the felt ground shaking and possible damages.

Citizen science has been used to provide valuable data in hydrology (catchment science), notably flood risk, water quality, and water resource management.[175][176][177] A growth in internet use and smartphone ownership has allowed users to collect and share real-time flood-risk information using, for example, social media and web-based forms. Although traditional data collection methods are well-established, citizen science is being used to fill the data gaps on a local level, and is therefore meaningful to individual communities. It has been demonstrated that citizen science is particularly advantageous during a flash flood because the public are more likely to witness these rarer hydrological events than scientists.[178]

Plastic Pollution in Madagascar

Citizen science includes projects that help monitor plastics and their associated pollution.[179][180][181][182] These include The Ocean Cleanup, #OneLess, The Big Microplastic Survey, EXXpedition and Alliance to End Plastic Waste.[183][184][185][186] Ellipsis seeks to map the distribution of litter using aerial data mapping by unmanned aerial vehicles and machine learning software.[187] A Zooniverse project called The Plastic Tide (now finished) helped train an algorithm used by Ellipsis.[188]

Projects that use apps include:[189]

• The European Environment Agency launched an initiative called "Marine Litter Watch" in June 2018. This uses mobile phones to: (quote) "help individuals and communities come together to clean up Europe’s beaches."[190]
• PlasticPatrol seeks to log and record plastic pollution: (quote) "The Plastic Patrol app is a real world tool that combines citizen science and scientific analysis to help us gather crucial insight into plastic pollution."[191]
• Literati's mission is to eradicate litter: (quote) "When millions of people come together, the impossible becomes reality, and change happens."[192]
• Anecdata helps anyone and any organisation to create a project: (quote) "Anecdata helps individuals and organizations collect, manage, and share their citizen science data, providing both web-based and mobile solutions for gathering and accessing observations."[193][194]
• In the UK #2minutebeachclean seeks to purge plastics in coastal environments.[195] They offer an app and a beachclean board, which can be displayed on beaches: (quote) "We believe that every piece of litter removed from the beach matters. So it doesn’t matter if you do 2 minutes or 30."[195]

Examples of relevant articles (by date):

• Citizen Science Promotes Environmental Engagement: (quote) "Citizen science projects are rapidly gaining popularity among the public, in which volunteers help gather data on species that can be used by scientists in research. And it’s not just adults who are involved in these projects – even kids have collected high-quality data in the US."[196]
• Tackling Microplastics on Our Own: (quote) "Plastics, ranging from the circles of soda can rings to microbeads the size of pinheads, are starting to replace images of sewage for a leading cause of pollution – especially in the ocean". Further, "With recent backing from the Crowdsourcing and Citizen Science Act, citizen science is increasingly embraced as a tool by US Federal agencies."[197]
• Citizen Scientists Are Tracking Plastic Pollution Worldwide: (quote) "Scientists who are monitoring the spread of tiny pieces of plastic throughout the environment are getting help from a small army of citizen volunteers – and they’re finding bits of polymer in some of the most remote parts of North America."[198]
• Artificial intelligence and citizen scientists: Powering the clean-up of Asia Pacific's beaches:(quote) "The main objective is to support citizen scientists cleaning up New Zealand beaches and get a better understanding of why litter is turning up, so preventive and proactive action can be taken."[199]
• Citizen science could help address Canada's plastic pollution problem: (quote) "But citizen engagement and participation in science goes beyond beach cleanups, and can be used as a tool to bridge gaps between communities and scientists. These partnerships between scientists and citizen scientists have produced real world data that have influenced policy changes."[200]

Examples of relevant scientific studies or books include (by date):

• Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): a study supported by a citizen science project: (quote) "The citizen science project "National Sampling of Small Plastic Debris" was supported by schoolchildren from all over Chile who documented the distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on Chilean beaches. Thirty-nine schools and nearly 1000 students from continental Chile and Easter Island participated in the activity."[201]
• Incorporating citizen science to study plastics in the environment: (quote) "Taking advantage of public interest in the impact of plastic on the marine environment, successful Citizen Science (CS) programs incorporate members of the public to provide repeated sampling for time series as well as synoptic collections over wide geographic regions."[202]
• Marine anthropogenic litter on British beaches: A 10-year nationwide assessment using citizen science data: (quote) "Citizen science projects, whereby members of the public gather information, offer a low-cost method of collecting large volumes of data with considerable temporal and spatial coverage. Furthermore, such projects raise awareness of environmental issues and can lead to positive changes in behaviours and attitudes."[203]
• Determining Global Distribution of Microplastics by Combining Citizen Science and In-Depth Case Studies: (quote) "Our first project involves the general public through citizen science. Participants collect sand samples from beaches using a basic protocol, and we subsequently extract and quantify microplastics in a central laboratory using the standard operating procedure."[204]
• Risk Perception of Plastic Pollution: Importance of Stakeholder Involvement and Citizen Science: (quote) "The chapter finally discusses how risk perception can be improved by greater stakeholder involvement and utilization of citizen science and thereby improve the foundation for timely and efficient societal measures."[205]
• Assessing the citizen science approach as tool to increase awareness on the marine litter problem:(quote) "This paper provides a quantitative assessment of students' attitude and behaviors towards marine litter before and after their participation to SEACleaner, an educational and citizen science project devoted to monitor macro- and micro-litter in an Area belonging to Pelagos Sanctuary."[206]
• Spatial trends and drivers of marine debris accumulation on shorelines in South Eleuthera, The Bahamas using citizen science: (quote) "This study measured spatial distribution of marine debris stranded on beaches in South Eleuthera, The Bahamas. Citizen science, fetch modeling, relative exposure index and predictive mapping were used to determine marine debris source and abundance."[207][208]
• Making citizen science count: Best practices and challenges of citizen science projects on plastics in aquatic environments:(quote) "Citizen science is a cost-effective way to gather data over a large geographical range while simultaneously raising public awareness on the problem".[209][210]
• White and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic: (quote) ""In March 2018, five samples were taken at different locations on Svalbard (Fig. 1A and Table 1) by citizen scientists embarking on a land expedition by ski-doo (Aemalire project). The citizens were instructed on contamination prevention and equipped with protocol forms, prerinsed 2-liter stainless steel containers (Ecotanca), a porcelain mug, a steel spoon, and a soup ladle for sampling."[211]

Citizen sensing can be a form of Citizen science: (quote) "The work of citizen sensing, as a form of citizen science, then further transforms Stengers’s notion of the work of science by moving the experimental facts and collectives where scientific work is undertaken out of the laboratory of experts and into the world of citizens."[212] Similar sensing activities include Crowdsensing and Participatory monitoring. While the idea of using mobile technology to aid this sensing is not new, creating devices and systems that can be used to aid regulation has not been straightforward.[212] Some examples of projects that include citizen sensing are:

• Citizen Sense (2013-2018): (quote) "Practices of monitoring and sensing environments have migrated to everyday participatory applications, where users of smart phones and networked devices are able to engage with modes of environmental observation and data collection."[213][214]
• Breathe Project: (quote) "We use the best available science and technology to better understand the quality of the air we breathe and provide opportunities for citizens to engage and take action."[215]
• The Bristol Approach to Citizen Sensing: (quote) "Citizen Sensing is about empowering people and places to understand and use smart tech and data from sensors to tackle the issues they care about, connect with other people who can help, and take positive, practical action."[216][217]
• Luftdaten.info: (quote) "You and thousands of others around the world install self-built sensors on the outside their home. Luftdaten.info generates a continuously updated particular matter map from the transmitted data."[218]
• CitiSense: (quote) "CitiSense aims to co-develop a participatory risk management system (PRMS) with citizens, local authorities and organizations which enables them to contribute to advanced climate services and enhanced urban climate resilience as well as receive recommendations that support their security."[219]

Resources for computer science and scientific crowdsourcing projects concerning coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can be found on the internet or as apps.[220][221][222] Some such projects are listed below:

• The distributed computing project Folding@home launched a program to assist researchers around the world who are working on finding a cure and learning more about the coronavirus pandemic. The initial wave of projects are meant to simulate potentially druggable protein targets from SARS-CoV-2, and the related SARS-CoV virus, about which there is significantly more data available.[223][224][225]
• Distributed computing project Rosetta@home also joined the effort in March. The project uses computers of volunteers to model SARS-CoV-2 virus proteins to discover possible drug targets or create new proteins to neutralize the virus. Researchers revealed that with the help of Rosetta@home, they had been able to “accurately predict the atomic-scale structure of an important coronavirus protein weeks before it could be measured in the lab.”[226]
• The OpenPandemics - COVID-19 project is a partnership between Scripps Research and IBM's World Community Grid for a distributed computing project that "will automatically run a simulated experiment in the background [of connected home PCs] which will help predict the effectiveness of a particular chemical compound as a possible treatment for COVID-19".[227]
• The Eterna OpenVaccine project enables video game players to "design an mRNA encoding a potential vaccine against the novel coronavirus."[228]
• The EU-Citizen.Science project has "a selection of resources related to the current COVID19 pandemic. It contains links to citizen science and crowdsourcing projects"[229]
• The COVID-19 Citizen Science project is "a new initiative by University of California, San Francisco physician-scientists" that "will allow anyone in the world age 18 or over to become a citizen scientist advancing understanding of the disease."[230]
• The CoronaReport digital journalism project is "a citizen science project which democratizes the reporting on the Coronavirus, and makes these reports accessible to other citizens."[231][232]
• The COVID Symptom Tracker is a crowdsourced study of the symptoms of the virus. It has had two million downloads by April 2020.[233][234]
• The Covid Near You epidemiology tool "uses crowdsourced data to visualize maps to help citizens and public health agencies identify current and potential hotspots for the recent pandemic coronavirus, COVID-19."[235]

For coronavirus studies and information that can help enable citizen science, many online resources are available through open access and open science websites, including portals run by the Cambridge University Press,[236] the Europe branch of the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition,[237] The Lancet,[238] John Wiley and Sons,[239] and Springer Nature.[240]

Snapshot Serengeti classifies animals at the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania

• In South Africa (SA), CS projects include: the Stream Assessment Scoring System (miniSASS) which "encourages enhanced catchment management for water security in a climate stressed society."[241]
• The South African National Biodiversity Institute is partnered with iNaturalist as a platform for biodiversity observations using digital photography and geolocation technology to monitor biodiversity. Such partnerships can reduce duplication of effort, help standardise procedures and make the data more accessible.
• Also in SA, "Members of the public, or 'citizen scientists' are helping researchers from the University of Pretoria to identify Phytophthora species present in the fynbos."[242]
• In June 2016, citizen science experts from across East Africa gathered in Nairobi, Kenya for a symposium organised by the Tropical Biology Association (TBA) in partnership with the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH). The aim was "to harness the growing interest and expertise in East Africa to stimulate new ideas and collaborations in citizen science." Rosie Trevelyan of the TBA said: "We need to enhance our knowledge about the status of Africa's species and the threats facing them. And scientists can't do it all on their own. At the same time, citizen science is an extremely effective way of connecting people more closely to nature and enrolling more people in conservation action".[243]
• The website Zooniverse hosts several African CS projects, including: Snapshot Serengeti, Wildcam Gorongosa and Jungle Rhythms.[244]
• Nigeria has the Ibadan Bird Club whose to aim is to "exchange ideas and share knowledge about birds, and get actively involved in the conservation of birds and biodiversity."[245]
• In Namibia, Giraffe Spotter.org is "project that will provide people with an online citizen science platform for giraffes".[246]
• Within the Republic of the Congo, the territories of an indigenous people have been mapped so that "the Mbendjele tribe can protect treasured trees from being cut down by logging companies". An Android open-source app called Sapelli was used by the Mbendjele which helped them map "their tribal lands and highlighted trees that were important to them, usually for medicinal reasons or religious significance. Congolaise Industrielle des Bois then verified the trees that the tribe documented as valuable and removed them from its cutting schedule. The tribe also documented illegal logging and poaching activities."[247]
• In West Africa, the eradication of the recent outbreak of Ebola virus disease was partly helped by CS. "Communities learnt how to assess the risks posed by the disease independently of prior cultural assumptions, and local empiricism allowed cultural rules to be reviewed, suspended or changed as epidemiological facts emerged." "Citizen science is alive and well in all three Ebola-affected countries. And if only a fraction of the international aid directed at rebuilding health systems were to be redirected towards support for citizen science, that might be a fitting memorial to those who died in the epidemic."[248]

• The Hong Kong Birdwatching Society was established in 1957, and is the only local civil society aiming at appreciating and conserving Hong Kong birds and their natural environment.[249] Their bird surveys go back to 1958, and they carry out a number of Citizen Science events such as their yearly sparrow census.[250]
• The Bird Count India partnership consists of a large number of organizations and groups involved in birdwatching and bird surveys. They coordinate a number of Citizen Science projects such as the Kerala Bird Atlas and Mysore city Bird Atlas that map the distribution and abundance of birds of entire Indian states.[251]
• RAD@home Astronomy Collaboratory is an Indian citizen science research platform in astronomy.[252][253][254] The collaboratory primarily focuses on making discoveries from the new and sensitive TIFR GMRT Sky Survey (TGSS) data[255] and follow them up with the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, a SKA pathfinder, through the ongoing GMRT Time Allocation Committee-approved multi-cycle project GMRT Observation of Objects Discovered by RAD@home Astronomy Collaboratory (GOOD-RAC).[256][257]
• The Taiwan Roadkill Observation Network, founded in 2011 and consists of more than 16,000 members as of 2019, is a Citizen Science project where roadkill across Taiwan is photographed and sent to the Endemic Species Research Institute for study. Its primary goal has been to set up an eco-friendly path to mitigate roadkill challenges and popularize national discourse on environmental issues and civil participation in scientific research.[258] The members of the Taiwan Roadkill Observation Network volunteer to observe the animals’ corpses caused by roadkill or other reasons in Taiwan, and upload pictures and geographic locations of the roadkill to an internet database or send the corpses to the Endemic Species Research for making specimen. Because the members come from different areas of the island, the collection of data could serve as an animal distribution map of the island. According to the geographical data and pictures of dead animals collected by the members, the community itself and the sponsor the Endemic Species Center could find out the hotspots and the reasons of animals’ death. One of the most renowned case is that the community successfully detected rabies cases due to the massively collected data and the corpse of Melogale moschata have been accumulated for years and alarmed the government authority to take actions to prevent the prevalence of rabies in Taiwan immediately. Another case in 2014 that some citizen scientists discovered birds that died from unknown causes near an agricultural area, then Taiwan Roadkill Observation Network cooperated with National Pingtung University of Science and Technology and engaged citizen scientists to collect bird carcass. The volunteers collected 250 bird corpses for laboratory tests, which confirmed that the bird deaths were attributable to the pesticides used on crops. This prompted the Taiwanese government to restrict pesticides, and the Bill of Pesticide Management amendment, establishing a pesticide control system, was passed after the third reading in the Legislative Yuan. The results indicated that Taiwan Roadkill Observation Network developed a set of shared working methods and jointly completed certain actions. Furthermore, the community of Taiwan Roadkill Observation Network have made real changes on road resign to avoid roadkill, improved the management of usage of pesticide, epidemic prevention, and so on.[259]
• The AirBox Project was launched in Taiwan to create a participatory ecosystem with a focus on PM2.5 monitoring with AirBox devices. At the end of 2014, the public paid more attention to the PM2.5 level because the air pollution problem became worse, especially in central and southern Taiwan. High PM2.5 level is harmful to our health, such as respiratory problems, so it aroused public concerns and led to an intensive debate about air pollution sources. Some experts indicated that the air quality was affected by pollutants from Mainland China, while some environmentalists believed that it is the result of industrialization such as exhaust fumes from local power plants or factories; however, no one knew the answer because of insufficient data. Dr. Ling-Jyh Chen, a researcher of the Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica, launched The AirBox Project. His original idea is inspired by a popular Taiwanese slogan Save Your Environment by Yourself. As an expert in Participatory Sensing System, he decided to take this bottom-up approach to collect PM2.5 level data, and through open data and data analysis to have a better understanding of the possible air pollution source. In this ecosystem, massive data was collected from the AirBox device. Data was instantly revealed online to inform people of PM2.5 level so that they take proper action, such as wearing a mask or staying at home, to prevent themselves from directly exploring to polluted environment. Data could be also analyzed to understand the possible sources of pollution and provide recommendations for improving the situation. To be precise, there are four main steps in this project. I) Develop the AirBox device. Developing a device that could correctly collect the data of the PM2.5 level was time-consuming. It took more than three years to develop AirBox that can be easily used, but with both high accuracy and low cost. II) Broad installation of AirBox. In the beginning, very few people were willing to install it at their homes because of their concerns about the possible harm to their health, power-consuming problem and maintenances of it, so that AirBoxs were only installed in a relatively small area. Thanks to the help from Taiwan's LASS (Location Aware Sensing System) community, AirBox appeared in all parts of Taiwan. As of February 2017, there are more than 1,600 Air Boxes installed in more than 27 countries. III) Open Source and Data Analysis. All measurement results were released and visualized in real-time to the public through different media. Data can be analyzed to trace pollution sources.[260]
• Japan has a long history of citizen science involvement, the 1,200-year-old tradition of collecting records on cherry blossom flowering probably being the world's longest-running citizen science project.[261] One of the most influential citizen science projects has also come out of Japan: Safecast. Dedicated to open citizen science for the environment, Safecast was established in the wake of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and produces open hardware sensors for radiation and air-pollution mapping. Presenting this data via a global open data network and maps[262]

Asháninka children in school

• In 2015 the Asháninka people from Apiwtxa, which crosses the border between Brazil and Peru, began using the Android app Sapelli to monitor their land. The Ashaninka have "faced historical pressures of disease, exploitation and displacement, and today still face the illegal invasion of their lands by loggers and hunters. This monitoring project shows how the Apiwtxa Ashaninka from the Kampa do Rio Amônia Indigenous Territory, Brazil, are beginning to use smartphones and technological tools to monitor these illegal activities more effectively."[263]
• In Argentina, two smartphone Android applications are available for CS. i) AppEAR has been developed at the Institute of Limnology and was launched in May 2016.[264] Joaquín Coachman is a researcher who developed an "application that appeals to the collaboration of users of mobile devices in collecting data that allow the study of aquatic ecosystems" (translation).[264] Coachman stated: "Not much of citizen science in Argentina, just a few more oriented to astronomy specific cases. As ours is the first. And I have volunteers from different parts of the country that are interested in joining together to centralize data. That's great because these types of things require many people participate actively and voluntarily" (translation).[264] ii) eBird was launched in 2013, and has so far identified 965 species of birds.[265] eBird in Argentina is "developed and managed by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology at Cornell University, one of the most important ornithological institutions in the world, and locally presented recently with the support of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Productive Innovation of the Nation (MINCyT)" (translation).[265]
• Projects in Brazil include: i) Platform and mobile app 'Missions' has been developed by IBM in their São Paulo research lab with Brazil's Ministry for Environment and Innovation (BMEI).[266] Sergio Borger, an IBM team lead in São Paulo, devised the crowdsourced approach when BMEI approached the company in 2010. They were looking for a way to create a central repository for the rainforest data.[266] Users can upload photos of a plant species and its components, enter its characteristics (such as color and size), compare it against a catalog photo and classify it. The classification results are juried by crowdsourced ratings.[266] ii) Exoss Citizen Science is a member of Astronomers Without Borders and seeks to explore the southern sky for new meteors and radiants.[267] Users can report meteor fireballs through uploading pictures on to a webpage or by linking to YouTube.[267]
  

  A jaguar in Pantanal; an example of Brazilian biodiversity.
  iii) The Information System on Brazilian Biodiversity (SiBBr) was launched in 2014 "aiming to encourage and facilitate the publication, integration, access and use of information about the biodiversity of the country."[268] Their initial goal "was to gather 2.5 million occurrence records of species from biological collections in Brazil and abroad up to the end of 2016. It is now expected that SiBBr will reach nine million records in 2016." Andrea Portela said: "In 2016, we will begin with the citizen science. They are tools that enable anyone, without any technical knowledge, to participate. With this we will achieve greater engagement with society. People will be able to have more interaction with the platform, contribute and comment on what Brazil has.[268] iv) The Brazilian Marine Megafauna Project (Iniciativa Pro Mar) is working with the European CSA towards its main goal, which is the "sensibilization of society for marine life issues" and concerns about pollution and the over-exploitation of natural resources.[269] Having started as a project monitoring manta ray, it now extends to whale shark and educating schools and divers within the Santos area.[269] Its social media activities include a live streaming of a CS course to help divers identify marine megafauna.[269] v) A smartphone app called Plantix has been developed by the Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF) which helps Brazilian farmers discover crop diseases quicker and helps fight them more efficiently.[270] Brazil is a very large agricultural exporter, but between 10 and 30% of crops fail because of disease.[270] "The database currently includes 175 frequently occurring crop diseases and pests as well as 40,000 photos. The identification algorithm of the app improves with every image which records a success rate of over 90 per cent as of approximately 500 photos per crop disease."[270] vi) In an Atlantic Ocean forest region in Brazil, an effort to map the genetic riches of soil is under way.[271] The Drugs From Dirt initiative, based at the Rockefeller University, seeks to turn up bacteria that yield new types of antibiotics- the Brazilian region being particularly rich in potentially useful bacterial genes.[271] Approximately a quarter of the 185 soil samples have been taken by Citizen Scientists without which the project could not run.[271]
• In Chile CS projects include (some websites in Spanish): i) Testing new cancer therapies with scientists from the Science Foundation for Life.[272] ii) Monitoring the population of the Chilean bumblebee.[273] iii) Monitoring the invasive ladybird Chinita arlequín.[274] iv) Collecting rain water data.[275] v) Monitoring various pollinating fly populations.[276] vi) Providing information and field data on the abundance and distribution of various species of rockfish.[277]

Córdoba wetland

• Projects in Colombia include (some websites in Spanish): i) The Communications Project of the Humboldt Institute along with the Organization for Education and Environmental Protection initiated projects in the Bogotá wetlands of Cordoba and El Burro, which have a lot of biodiversity.[278][279] ii) In the Model Forest of Risaralda, the Colombia 'proyecto de Ciencia Abierta y Colaborativa' promotes citizen participation in research related to how the local environment is adapting to climate change. The first meeting took place in the Flora and Fauna Sanctuary Otún Quimbaya.[280] iii) The Citizen Network Environmental Monitoring (CLUSTER), based in the city of Bucaramanga, seeks to engage younger students in data science, who are trained in building weather stations with open repositories based on free software and open hardware data.[281] iv) The Symposium on Biodiversity has adapted the CS tool iNaturalist for use in Colombia.[282] v) The Sinchi Amazonic Institute of Scientific Research seeks to encourage the development and diffusion of knowledge, values and technologies on the management of natural resources for ethnic groups in the Amazon. This research should further the use of participatory action research schemes and promoting participation communities.[283]
• Since 2010, the Pacific Biodiversity Institute (PBI) seeks "volunteers to help identify, describe and protect wildland complexes and roadless areas in South America". The PBI "are engaged in an ambitious project with our Latin American conservation partners to map all the wildlands in South America, to evaluate their contribution to global biodiversity and to share and disseminate this information."[284]
• In Mexico, a citizen science project has monitored rainfall data that is linked to a hydrologic payment for ecosystem services project. [285]

• Stanford Our Voice Initiative: Citizen Science for Health Equity
• NASA Solve: Citizen Science, Challenges and Prizes at NASA.
• Citizen Science Center
• GeoTag-X run by UNITAR-UNOSAT
• Ibercivis Foundation
• Search and Rescue Citizen Science Experiment by National Research Council Canada
• Atlas. Australia's voice for birds since 1901.
• Indigo V Expeditions. Dedicated to the advancement of citizen oceanography.
• WikiTopia Archives program. Dedicated to Archives about Archaeology belonging to private owners for publication on Wikimedia commons and WikiSource.
• Cultural Contributing Platforms Programs, Database of Digital Humanities Contributing Platforms of the ANR Collabora Research Program.