Indigenous American philosophy

Due to the lack of deciphered written records (but see quipu), Andean recorded history begins with the edge of living memory from the time of conquest by the Spanish, and thus includes only some Late Intermediate Period and Late Horizon civilizations, such as the Inca and the Chimú empires. Andean philosophy were greatly shaped by the concept of dualism, specifically a form known in Quechua as yanantin, or "dualism of complementary opposites". Coupled with the concept of masintin, meaning "the process of becoming yanintin", this dualism manifested itself in Andean art, gender relations, and even political administrative organization. Inca philosophy is the only Andean philosophical tradition for which we know of any direct records for. Inca philosophy was intrinsically bound together with religion, and was deeply steeped in the concept of dualism.

Perhaps the best documented philosophical tradition of the Precolumbian and early colonial era is that of the Aztecs (Nahua), a Nahuatl-speaking people who established a large and sophisticated empire in central Mexico prior to being conquered by the Spanish. Mesoamerican thought and philosophy is notable for its extensive usage of metaphor to explain abstract concepts.[2]

The Aztecs thought of philosophy in more or less pragmatic and practical terms. A central feature of Aztec philosophy was the concept of teotl, a Nahuatl term for the animating force of the cosmos and an ever-acting and dynamic mover. Teotl in theological terms could also symbolize a type of pantheism.[3]

In the 1530s, the Spanish friar Bernardino de Sahagún learned that the societies of the Nahuatl-speaking Nahuas had their own devoted scholars (tlamatinime) – a gender-neutral term meaning “knowers of things”, “the wise”, or “philosophers.” The scholar Lynn Sebastian Purcell argues that the Nahua argument for a “rooted life”, neltiliztli, “functions for ethical purposes in a way that is like Aristotle’s eudaimonia.”[4] Purcell compares this Greek perspective to the Nahua philosophers’ conception of the virtues (“the good, noble”: qualli, yectli). Hence, the Nahua “held a view about ethical philosophy that is similar to Aristotle’s.”

Purcell also stresses that Nahua philosophers “often did break with ordinary understandings” in their society. For example, the Nahua philosopher Nezahualcoyotl (1402–1472, his name translates as a “Coyote who fasts”) is “clearly expressing doubt about life in a place after death.” According to a text by Dag Herbjørnsrud, "agnosticism was present among the first nations of America, in addition to its widespread pantheism. There were discussions, disagreements. And Sophists."[5] Sahagún’s informants complained about the “false wise man, like an ignorant physician, a man without understanding.”

Sahagún transcribed his discourses with the learned Nahua elders; first they wrote in Nahuatl, in the Roman alphabet – then they translated this into Spanish. The result was an encyclopedic and bilingual work of 1,200 pages and 2,400 plus illustrations drawn by Nahua artists: The General History of the Things of New Spain – today known as the “Florentine Codex”. These 16th century books, which took 30 years to translate into English, completed in 1982, cover the Nahua inhabitants’ views on everything from history and nature to economy, astronomy, and philosophy.

The most famous Maya text is the Popol Vuh (“Council Book” or “Book of the Community”), written down in the middle of the 16th century north of Guatemala City. This “Council Book” describes the origins and histories of the Mayan K’iché people, who now number more than 1.5 million people in Guatemala. Professor Alexus McLeod states in an introduction to his book on Maya philosophy:

“Today, it is possible and valuable for a philosopher like myself, with no archaeological training, to engage with ancient Maya thought in a way that would have been impossible even twenty years ago. Enough has been deciphered, uncovered, and understood about Maya writing and culture that it is now possible to examine Maya philosophy as philosophy.”

In 1956, Miguel León-Portilla published his doctoral dissertation on Nahua philosophy, La filosofía náhuatl estudiada en sus fuentes (“The Nahuatl philosophy studied in its sources”).

Among the Hopi, there is a concept known as hopivotskwani, translating roughly to "the Hopi path of life". It entails behaving with a peaceful disposition, cooperation, humility, and respect. Hopi philosophy teaches that life is a journey, to be lived in harmoniously with the natural world. Thus, the Hopi believe that following hopivotskwani will lead to positive outcomes not only in interpersonal relationships, but also in interactions with nature, for example ensuring sufficient rainfall and a good harvest.[6]

As a rule, contemporary Pueblo peoples are very reluctant to share their traditional philosophical and spiritual worldviews with outsiders. This can be attributed to several factors, among them abuse of trust by early anthropologists and colonial Spanish intolerance for traditional Puebloan religions.

Brian Yazzie Burkhart, a Cherokee, has described his experience of the story of Coyote:

Coyote is wandering around in his usual way when he comes upon a prairie dog town. The prairie dogs laugh and curse at him. Coyote gets angry and wants revenge. The sun is high in the sky. Coyote decides that he wants clouds to come. He is starting to hate the prairie dogs and so thinks about rain. Just then a cloud appears.

Coyote says, "I wish it would rain on me." And that is what happened.

Coyote says, "I wish there were rain at my feet." And that is what happened.

"I want the rain up to my knees," Coyote says. And that is what happened.

"I want the rain up to my waist," he then says. And that is what happened.[7]

Eventually, the entire land is flooded. Coyote's mistake is not letting what is right guide his actions, but instead acting entirely on his own motivations. This is a reminder that one must be careful about what one desires, and must keep in mind the things around us and how we relate to them. Burkhart terms this the principle of relatedness:[8]

The idea here is simply that the most important things to keep in mind are the simple things that are directly around us in our experience and the things to which we are most directly related. In calling these ideas principles, I do not mean to give them special philosophical status. In American Indian thought, they are simply ways of being. These principles are merely abstractions from these ways of being. ... Principles in the traditional philosophical sense have no place in American Indian philosophy.[8]