Infante Jaime, Duke of Madrid

parents: Don Carlos and Doña Margarita, late 1860s

Don Jaime was descended from many highly aristocratic European houses: the Borbóns,[3] the Bourbon-Parmas,[4] the Bourbons,[5] the Borbón-Two Sicilies,[6] the Braganças,[7] the Habsburg-Lothringens,[8] the Austria-Estes,[9] the Savoyans[10] and other.[11] The rate of intermarriage, which posed problems to health of aristocratic offspring, in his case was rather low: instead of 16 great-great-grandparents he had 14.[12] Among them there were 6 kings who actually ruled: Charles IV in Spain (1788–1808), Charles X in France (1824–1830), João VI in Portugal (1822–1826), Francis I in Two Sicilies (1825–1830), Victor Emmanuel I in Sardinia (1802–1821) and Louis I in Etruria (1801–1803). There was one king among his great-grandparents, Louis II of Etruria (1803–1807); having lost his royal status he later reigned as duke Charles I over the Duchy of Lucca (1824–1847) and as Charles II over the Duchy of Parma (1848–1849). Another great-grandfather Francis IV ruled as the Duke of Modena (1814–1846) and another one Carlos V claimed the Spanish throne as a Carlist pretender (1833–1845). Among Don Jaime's grandparents the only one who actually ruled was Charles III, the Duke of Parma (1849–1854), though the Carlist claimant Juan III posed as the king of Spain (1861–1868) and later also as Jean III, the legitimist king of France (1883–1887). Don Jaime's father, Carlos de Borbón (1848–1909), as Carlos VII was the 4th successive claimant to the Carlist throne (1868–1909) and later as Charles XI a legitimist claimant to the French one (1887–1909). Don Jaime's mother, Marguerite de Bourbon-Parme (1847–1893), was daughter to the second-last ruling Duke of Parma and sister to the last ruler of the Duchy of Parma. In 1894 Don Jaime's father remarried with Berthe de Rohan, an Austrian aristocrat and a distant descendant to a branch of French dukes, but the couple had no children.

Alfonso Carlos and his wife Maria das Neves

All Don Jaime's uncles and aunts came from European royal or ducal families, with two of them actually ruling: the brother of his mother, Roberto I, was the last ruling Duke of Parma (1854–1859), while the sister of his mother, Alicia de Bourbon-Parme, was married to the last ruling Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand IV (1859–1860). Both rulers were deposed in course of unification of Italy and kept claiming the titles when living on exile. Don Jaime's paternal uncle, the brother of his father Alfonso Carlos de Borbón, at the moment of Don Jaime's death became as Alfonso Carlos I the Carlist pretender to the throne of Spain and as Charles XII the legitimist pretender to the throne of France. Count of Chambord, the last strictly patrilinear descendant to the king of France Charles X and as such the legitimist claimant to the throne of France (1844–1883) was distantly related to Don Jaime as both had a common ancestor 6 (in case Count of Chambord) and 7 (in case of Don Jaime) generations earlier; besides, Count of Chambord was married to a sister of Don Jaime's paternal grandmother and was his own godfather.[13] Out of Don Jaime's 33 cousins[14] many concluded highly aristocratic marriages but there were only two who married rulers: Zita Bourbon-Parme in 1916–1918 was the empress of Austria and the queen of Hungary, while Felix Bourbon-Parme in 1919–1970 was the duke-consort of Luxembourg. A few of his Habsburg-Lothringen cousins were in succession titular claimants to the defunct Grand Duchy of Tuscany, while a few of his Bourbon-Parme cousins were in succession titular claimants to the defunct Duchy of Parma. From 1936 onwards Xavier Bourbon-Parme was the Carlist regent-claimant and later as Javier I the king-claimant of Spain. Some cousins married into royal houses of Italy,[15] Denmark[16] and Saxony.[17] Marriages of Don Jaime's Bourbon-Parme cousins were largely fortunate,[18] while cases of his Habsburg cousins were largely unsuccessful or even scandalous.[19]

Elvira

Don Jaime's sisters did not marry into ruling houses and entered into relations which in 3 out of 4 cases ended up in scandals, attentively followed by European press. The only successful marriage was concluded by his older sister Blanca; in 1889 she married archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria, descendant to a cadet branch of the exiled Tuscan Habsburgs. They had many children and though on exile – after 1918 also from the republican Austria – the couple led a fairly happy family life.[20] Since the 1940s some of their sons posed as Carlist claimants to the throne Spain, related to the so-called Carloctavista branch. The younger sister Elvira was about to marry archduke Leopold Ferdinand Habsburg, son of the 1859-deposed Grand Duke of Tuscany, but due to political reasons the plan was blocked by Emperor Franz Joseph I;[21] in 1896 she fled with an Italian painter Filippo Folchi. Her father announced the daughter "had died for all of us"[22] and the runaway couple with their children shuttled across Europe. Elvira tried to sue her father over inheritance; later she and Folchi parted.[23] It seems that in the late 1920s Don Jaime and Elvira, both living in Paris, maintained some family relationship.[24] One more sister Beatriz in 1892 married Fabrizio Massimo, prince of Roviano, and settled on his estate in Rome. Though with 4 children they were not a happy couple, with constant arguments and her suicide attempt;[25] later the couple kept up appearances but they eventually separated.[26] In 1897 the youngest sister Alicia married Friedrich Schönburg-Waldenburg, a high German aristocrat and owner of many estates in Saxony. Just after giving birth to their only son she abandoned her husband, got the marriage annulled by the Church and in 1903 married an Italian officer Lino del Prete.[27] The couple lived in Tuscany and had 9 children;[28] Alicia was the longest-living one of the siblings and died in 1975.

Mathilde

When he was seventeen Don Jaime was rumoured to marry María, daughter of the late Alfonsist king Alfonso XII.[29] The alleged plan was to mend the feud between the Carlists and Alfonsists, yet there is no indication that the news was anything more than a press speculation.[30] When he was 26, Don Jaime developed at least cordial correspondence with Mathilde, daughter of Prince Ludwig of Bavaria.[31] In unclear circumstances, possibly related to intrigues of his stepmother[32] and political problems with Madrid[33] the relationship dried up. Though when later serving in the Russian army in Warsaw Don Jaime had women in his mind[34] there is no confirmation of any amorous episodes until he was already in his late 30s and subject to concern about lack of Carlist dynastic succession. He was attracted to a 16-year-old Bourbon-Parme cousin Marie-Antoinette,[35] but apparently realised impracticability of the would-be relationship. Don Jaime soon started to pursue[36] her slightly older sister Zita;[37] though some claim that the two were about to get married[38] the girl has never watched her cousin favourably.[39] Rumors related to Patricia Connaught[40] and a niece of Kaiser Wilhelm II[41] followed; there was also a lawsuit about allegedly Don Jaime's son born by his former cook.[42] When he was in his mid-40s the alarm bells were already ringing very loud and succession became a burning political issue. About to turn 50 Don Jaime mounted matrimonial plans focused on Fabiola Massimo, his 19-year-old niece;[43] he already approached the Vatican about a dispensation. The permission has reportedly been denied, either due to protests of his brother-in-law or intrigues of the Madrid court.[44] When he was in his 50s newspapers floated news about Don Jaime's designs related to unnamed "princesas austriacas",[45] "a distinguished French lady"[46] or Blanca de Borbón y León.[47] The last rumours were circulated when aged 58, he was supposed to marry Filipa de Bragança.[48] It seems that at least not all of these speculations should be dismissed as entirely ungrounded.[49]

with sisters, ca 1872

The birth of Don Jaime was celebrated in the Carlist realm as an extension of the dynasty, the baby greeted by hundreds of messages as the future king of Spain.[51] Initially Jaime remained with his parents and slightly older sister in Palais La Faraz, a mansion occupied by the family in Tour de Peilz near Vevey. In 1871 they moved to Villa Bocage in Geneva,[52] where Jaime's mother gave birth to his another sister. In 1873 Margarita de Borbón, her 3 children and a small quasi-court of assistants, secretaries and servants transferred to Ville du Midi in Pau. At that time Carlos VII was in Spain leading his troops during the Third Carlist War; in 1874 the boy with his mother visited his father on the Carlist-held territory and dressed in uniform, was cheered with frenetic enthusiasm by Carlist soldiers.[53] Upon return to Pau Margarita gave birth to two more daughters before in September 1876[54] the mother, 5 children and royal entourage – including preceptors of the boy[55] – settled in a hotel at Rue de la Pompe in Paris.[56] Don Carlos was mostly travelling, first on a journey to America[57] and then to the Balkans; he joined the family in late 1877. Either in late 1876 or in early 1877 Don Jaime started frequenting Collège de l'Immaculée-Conception at Rue de Vaugirard, a prestigious Jesuit establishment. Initially the boy followed a challenging semi-board pattern; waking up as early as 4:30 am he travelled by public transport to the college and for the night he used to return to his family.[58] This changed in 1880, when due to political pressure of the French government Carlos VII was forced to leave France and settled in Venice.[59] At that time relations between Don Jaime's parents have already turned sour; doña Margarita decided not to accompany her husband and settled in own estate near Viareggio.[60] With his parents away, until completing the curriculum in 1881 the boy lived on the college premises with other students.[61]

with parents and sisters, early 1880s

Following a summer break with his parents in Italy in 1881 Don Jaime entered Beaumont College, prestigious Jesuit establishment in Old Windsor near London.[62] It was catering to Catholic aristocracy from all over Europe, though the largest contingent was formed by Irish boys.[63] Initially Jaime lived with his old preceptor Barrena, who settled in Windsor to facilitiate accommodation even though James Hayes[64] was chosen as a new spiritual guide;[65] in 1882 Barrena left and Jaime moved to common dormitory. As perhaps the most prestigious student[66] he received special treatment.[67] Visited by parents[68] and paternal grandfather, who lived in Brighton,[69] Jaime used to spend holidays in Viareggio or Venice.[70] It seems that his relations with other boys were good, though he tended to patronising[71] and excess of ambition.[72] Don Jaime completed the Beaumont curriculum in May 1886.[73] The same year he inherited from the Chambords part of their fortune and real estates in Austria, in particular the Frohsdorf palace.[74] There were plans about further education in Stella Matutina in Feldkirch, but most of 1887 was spent on recovery from very serious health problems which had plagued him few months earlier;[75] part of the scheme was Don Jaime's trip with his Bardi uncles to Egypt and Palestine.[76] Following return to Viareggio in 1888 he embarked on his first diplomatic mission to Vatican;[77] he was also subject to dynastic speculations related to Nocedalista break-up in Spain[78] and these about his future military education in England and would-be service in India.[79] He seems to have stayed with his mother and sisters in Viareggio rather than with his father in Venice, in 1889 recorded as travelling across Europe either on family business, e.g. to attend the wedding of his sister in Frohsdorf, or on leisure, e.g. with his mother visiting the galleries and museums of Paris.[80]

Don Jaime, probably early or mid-1890s

It is not clear whether Carlos VII has discussed with the British his alleged vision of Don Jaime pursuing a military career in England. Eventually in 1890 Don Jaime indeed commenced military education, though not in Sandhurst but in Theresianische Militärakademie in Wiener Neustadt. Still considered childish by his mother, he was accompanied by a family trustee, Miguel Ortigosa.[81] Almost no details on Don Jaime's military education are available and it is not known whether and if yes what army branch he opted for. According to his later opponents[82] in the academy Don Jaime became loose on his Catholic practices and got somewhat derailed from Traditionalist track.[83] He graduated in 1893,[84] but mounting political differences between Carlos VII and the kaiser produced a disaster: Don Jaime was neither promoted to officer rank nor admitted to the imperial army.[85] The years of 1894–1895 were dedicated mostly to travelling, be it distant voyages like the tour to India, Siam, Indoniesia and the Philippines, or shorter trips, e.g. to the Spanish Morocco.[86] It was in 1894 that for the first time since the early childhood days he visited Spain;[87] officially incognito and accompanied by a Vasco-Navarrese Carlist leader Tirso de Olazábal, during his 37-day tour[88] Don Jaime was many times identified. He gave rise to a number of rather friendly anecdotes,[89] while his journey was widely discussed in the press.[90] Most likely in the mid-1890s Don Carlos explored perspectives of his son commencing a military career in one of major European armies. Don Jaime's service in the imperial Austrian army was out of the question; it is not clear whether the British or the German army was at any point considered an option.[91] Eventually Don Carlos renewed his 1877 relations with the St. Petersburg court and some time late 1895 it was agreed that Don Jaime would join the Russian army.[92]

Vistula Land

In the late 19th century Warsaw was the third most populous city of the Russian Empire; with almost 700,000 inhabitants, it was larger than Madrid or Barcelona.[94] According to the official 1897 census, 62% of the population were Poles, 27% Jews, 9% Russians and 2% Germans; not a single Spaniard was listed as living in the city.[95] All officialdom, including top administrative layers, schooling, judiciary, and military, was dominated by the Russians. At that time Warsaw was the centre of Vistula Land, a region that retained some minor legal identity but, in general, was well integrated into the Russian administrative structures.[96] The level of national and social tension was relatively low but occasionally noticeable; in 1898, strikes hit the local metalworking industry[97] and in 1899 1 May demonstration turned into riots.[98]

At the turn of the century Warsaw was vital for Russian military planning. The city was headquarters of the westernmost of 14 Russian military districts, and home to a large military garrison.[99] As since the Berlin Congress of 1878 relations with Germany were steadily deteriorating,[100] the area was of growing concern for the Russian General Staff. Itself a prominent salient flanked by German and Austro-Hungarian provinces, it posed a challenge for planners. The prevailing military strategy, known as Miliutin-Obruchev system, pursued a defensive counteroffensive vision;[101] it admitted that initially it might be necessary to abandon territories west of the Vistula and mount a defence based on seven fortresses, of which Warsaw and the other three would form a forward shield.[102]

Don Jaime as praporshchik, 1898

Don Jaime arrived in Warsaw following at least half-a-year spell in the Russian army;[103] he had served in a cavalry regiment in Odessa before.[104] It is not clear why the prince left the Black Sea coast and what political, diplomatic or military mechanism got him landed in Warsaw;[105] the choice was probably determined by family logistics.[106] Though convenient travelwise, given the role of Warsaw garrison the assignment was a challenge from military perspective, especially that don Jaime was assigned to the Life Guard Grodno Hussar Regiment (Гродненский гусарский лейб-гвардии полк).[107] His new unit was a cavalry regiment[108] forming part of the very prestigious if not somewhat snobbish, Russian aristocracy dominated Life-Guard category.[109]

It is not entirely clear what was Don Jaime's rank when he arrived in Warsaw; Spanish press referred to him as "teniente",[110] Polish press referred to him as "chorąży".[111] There is no official Russian document available for consultation; the most likely rank was "Praporshchik" (прапорщик; equivalent to Ensign).[112] On 17 September 1900 he was formally promoted to the rank of "Poruchik" (поручик; equivalent to Lieutenant)[113] and at that rank he served until the end of his actual Warsaw assignment, though in 1904 he was promoted to the rank of "Kapitan" (капитан; equivalent to Captain)[114] and finally to "Polkovnik" (полковник; equivalent to Colonel). None of the sources consulted provides any information on don Jaime's function in the regiment and it is not known whether he served in regimental staff or with any of the squadrons.[115] In late 1902 the press reported that upon return from a just commencing 6-month leave, the following May don Jaime would intend to seek release from duty,[116] but in late summer 1903 he was still reported serving.[117] In October 1903 he was transferred from the Hussar Regiment to personal staff assigned to the Warsaw district commander.[118]

Barracks at the former Агриколя Дольная street.

Though he was formally appointed to Warsaw in December 1897[119] and though it is likely he spent a few brief spells in the city between 1904 and 1906, there is no confirmation of don Jaime actually serving in Warsaw before March 1898[120] and after October 1903.[121] His duty was largely performed on the on and off basis; in-between the above dates he spent in total some 40 months in the city, on average slightly more than half a year per annum.[122] Except 1898 and 1899 he used to leave around November, as allegedly the local autumn weather did not serve him well;[123] don Jaime was usually returning to service around April.[124] The longest uninterrupted stay identified was between November 1899 and June 1900.[125] Punctuated by at least month-long breaks of leave periods, his service in Warsaw broke down to 8 separate strings.[126]

When away, don Jaime was either on leave in Austria-Hungary, Italy and France[127] or on service assignments with the Russian army: as member of demarcation commission at Russian frontier with Turkey, Afghanistan and Persia (from summer to fall 1899),[128] in combat units during the Boxer Uprising (from summer 1900 till spring 1901)[129] and during the Russo-Japanese War (starting the spring of 1904). He also spent brief rest periods in the Polish countryside.[130] He was last reported in Warsaw in late autumn of 1903,[131] leaving the city some time by the end of the year. As at that time he was already released from the hussar regiment, it is likely he intended to terminate his Warsaw service. During outbreak of the war against Japan in early 1904 Don Jaime was with his father in Venice, where he was reached by the call to arms; before having been received by Nicholas II in St. Petersburg in March he was likely to have stayed few days in Warsaw, though this was not recorded by the local press. It is also possible—though not confirmed in sources—that he spent few days in Warsaw in June 1905 (en route from Austria to St. Petersburg and back) and in July/August 1906 (en route from Paris to St. Petersburg and back)[132]

Don Jaime's residence at Шопена street, Warsaw.

Initially Don Jaime lived in a semi-rural, military-dominated Sielce suburb, hardly within the administrative city limits; his residence was a modest one-room apartment in the regimental officers' barracks building at Агриколя Дольная street, with two batmen – one of them Spanish – living next door.[133] Starting June 1900 he was already reported as living at Шопена street 8,[134] in a plushy, prestigious area and in a newly constructed apartment building. Despite his modest rank don Jaime took part in official feasts seated among most prestigious participants, be it members of the House of Romanov, top Russian generals like military district commander or civil officials like president of Warsaw.[135] Very sporadically he was reported as taking part in gatherings of local elites, either those associated with visits of his distant relatives like Ferdinand Duke of Alençon[136] or feasts of apparently unrelated Polish aristocrats like count Mieczysław Woroniecki.[137]

Though possibly familiar with religious hierarchs,[138] in general Don Jaime was not listed as engaged in local community life;[139] he declared spending his free time in theatres and restaurants[140] and indeed was noted there.[141] He was, however, a noticeable city figure as a sportsman; apart from joining the local horse racing society[142] he was particularly recognised for automobile activities.[143] He owned one of the first cars in Warsaw, a De Dion Bouton machine allegedly well recognised by the city dwellers. The only local he seemed to have been in closer relations with was Stanisław Grodzki, a Warsaw automobile pioneer and owner of the first car dealership;[144] local motor fans were greeting Don Jaime when he was launching his automobile trips.[145] Rather accidentally don Jaime was also acknowledged and cheered as a sportsman by "forgemen, peasants and innkeepers".[146] Spanish press reported Carlist officials departing from Madrid to see him,[147] but the Polish one has not noted any visits paid.

Russian cavalry in Warsaw, 1905

The Warsaw press of the era was fairly well informed about developments in Spain, with war against the United States systematically reported and even results of the Cortes elections discussed down to minuscule details; e. g. in 1899 there were 4 Carlists noted as elected.[148] Spanish political life was depicted rather accurately if not indeed prophetically,[149] though at times with some patronising tones.[150] It was acknowledged—even in jokes—that very few Poles knew who the Carlists were.[151] Despite occasional references to Carlism in news columns, cases of linking these reports with don Jaime residing in Warsaw were rather exceptional.[152] Usually press notes referred to don Jaime as "His Royal Highness", they were maintained in polite style which has never turned into anything more than sympathetic desinteressement.[153] Not a single case of either hostile or friendly stance towards the Carlists has been identified.[154] Though interviews with don Jaime adhered to respectful and warm tone, they by no means amounted to political proselytism;[155] some of them sounded slightly ironic about the Carlist cause.[156]

Historically relations between Russia and Carlism have been marked by indifference with occasional demonstrations of mutual sympathy.[157] Don Jaime has not been noted as involved in any political initiatives, though his taking part in official Russian feasts with members of the House of Romanov participating was clearly flavoured with political undertones. At one opportunity the prince made some effort to court the Poles, referring to alleged Polish combatants in ranks of the legitimist troops during the last Carlist war;[158] official Spanish diplomatic services tried to keep a close watch on him.[159] National and social unrest which erupted in Warsaw in 1905 occurred after don Jaime had already left the city; he had little opportunity to make his own opinion let alone take sides. It is not clear whether vague personal references to the Russian revolution, made by don Jaime in his 23 April 1931 manifesto, were anyhow related to the 1905 events.[160]

lot of a Russian officer

Don Jaime joined the Russian army in his mid-20s, in-between youth and mid-age, straightforward, easy-going,[161] just about to get married and to launch his international career.[162] His last, brief Warsaw spells occurred when he was in his mid-30s, a solitary who by some was already viewed as a bit of a disappointment.[163] For the rest of his life he remained a highly ambiguous if not mysterious figure and is as such acknowledged in historiography.[164] It is not clear to what extent service in the Russian army contributed to his formation.[165] Imperial Guards corps officers made a peculiar company, with own identity, values and rituals,[166] especially in an ethnically alien ambience. According to a Polish cliché a cynical lot,[167] their preferred sports were allegedly womanising,[168] drinking and tormenting Jews in the jolly westernmost garrison of the Empire, in Russian officer-speak known as весёлая варшавка.[169] Some of his Carlist opponents claimed that in the early 1900s don Jaime was already ideologically derailed.[170]

Don Jaime is not known to have publicly and explicitly referred to the Warsaw service in the decades to come.[171] In Spanish historiography the Warsaw spell is usually treated marginally.[172] Don Jaime's military career in the Far East is at times acknowledged as sort of a curiosity,[173] though his service in the Russian army is mentioned when discussing controversies within Carlism related to Spain's role in the First World War.[174] Historiographic works on Carlism focus either on don Jaime's role in internal strife in the 1910s or on his very last years during Berenguer's dictablanda and the Second Spanish Republic in the early 1930s.[175] In Polish historiography his hussars spell went largely unnoticed. Dedicated works dealing with Spanish-Polish relations acknowledge even brief Polish episodes of celebrities like Pablo Picasso or Carmen Laforet but they ignore don Jaime,[176] even though along Sofía Casanova (1907–1945) and Ignacio Hidalgo de Cisneros (1950–1962) he is one of the best-known Spaniards permanently residing in Warsaw.[177]