Integral of the secant function

${\displaystyle \int \sec \theta \,d\theta =\left\{{\begin{array}{l}{\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{1-\sin \theta }}\right|+C\\[15pt]\ln \left|\sec \theta +\tan \theta \right|+C\\[15pt]\ln \left|\tan \left({\dfrac {\theta }{2}}+{\dfrac {\pi }{4}}\right)\right|+C\end{array}}\right\}{\text{ (equivalent forms)}}}$

The second of these follows by first multiplying top and bottom of the interior fraction by ${\displaystyle (1+\sin \theta )}$. This gives ${\displaystyle 1-\sin ^{2}\theta =\cos ^{2}\theta }$ in the denominator and the result follows by moving the factor of 1/2 into the logarithm as a square root. Leaving out the constant of integration for now,

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{1-\sin \theta }}\right|&={\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{1-\sin \theta }}\cdot {\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{1+\sin \theta }}\right|={\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\dfrac {(1+\sin \theta )^{2}}{1-\sin ^{2}\theta }}\right|={\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\dfrac {(1+\sin \theta )^{2}}{\cos ^{2}\theta }}\right|\\[6pt]&={\dfrac {1}{2}}\ln \left({\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{\cos \theta }}\right)^{2}=\ln {\sqrt {\left({\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{\cos \theta }}\right)^{2}}}=\ln \left|{\dfrac {1+\sin \theta }{\cos \theta }}\right|=\ln |\sec \theta +\tan \theta |.\end{aligned}}}$

The third form follows by replacing ${\displaystyle \sin \theta }$ by ${\displaystyle -\cos(\theta +\pi /2)}$ and expanding using the identities for ${\displaystyle \cos 2x}$. It may also be obtained directly by means of the following substitutions:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sec \theta ={\frac {1}{\sin \left(\theta +{\dfrac {\pi }{2}}\right)}}={\frac {1}{2\sin \left({\dfrac {\theta }{2}}+{\dfrac {\pi }{4}}\right)\cos \left({\dfrac {\theta }{2}}+{\dfrac {\pi }{4}}\right)}}={\frac {\sec ^{2}\left({\dfrac {\theta }{2}}+{\dfrac {\pi }{4}}\right)}{2\tan \left({\dfrac {\theta }{2}}+{\dfrac {\pi }{4}}\right)}}.\end{aligned}}}$

The conventional solution for the Mercator projection ordinate may be written without the modulus signs since the latitude ${\displaystyle \varphi }$ lies between ${\displaystyle -{\frac {\pi }{2}}}$ and ${\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}}$,

${\displaystyle y=\ln \tan \!\left({\frac {\varphi }{2}}+{\frac {\pi }{4}}\right).}$

Let

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi &=\ln(\sec \theta +\tan \theta ),\\e^{\psi }&=\sec \theta +\tan \theta ,\\\sinh \psi &={\frac {1}{2}}(e^{\psi }-e^{-\psi })=\tan \theta ,\\\cosh \psi &={\sqrt {1+\sinh ^{2}\psi }}=\sec \theta ,\\\tanh \psi &=\sin \theta .\end{aligned}}}$

Therefore,

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int \sec \theta \,d\theta &=\psi =\tanh ^{-1}\!\left(\sin \theta \right)=\sinh ^{-1}\!\left(\tan \theta \right)=\cosh ^{-1}\!\left(\sec \theta \right).\end{aligned}}}$

A standard method of evaluating the secant integral presented in various references involves multiplying the numerator and denominator by ${\displaystyle \sec \theta +\tan \theta }$ and then substituting the following to the resulting expression: ${\displaystyle u=\sec \theta +\tan \theta }$ and ${\displaystyle du=(\sec \theta \tan \theta +\sec ^{2}\theta )\,d\theta }$.[6][7] This substitution can be obtained from the derivatives of secant and tangent added together, which have secant as a common factor.[8]

Starting with

${\displaystyle {\frac {d}{d\theta }}\sec \theta =\sec \theta \tan \theta \quad {\text{and}}\quad {\frac {d}{d\theta }}\tan \theta =\sec ^{2}\theta ,}$

adding them gives

${\displaystyle {\frac {d}{d\theta }}(\sec \theta +\tan \theta )=\sec \theta \tan \theta +\sec ^{2}\theta =\sec \theta (\tan \theta +\sec \theta ).}$

The derivative of the sum is thus equal to the sum multiplied by ${\displaystyle \sec \theta }$. This enables multiplying ${\displaystyle \sec \theta }$ by ${\displaystyle \sec \theta +\tan \theta }$ in the numerator and denominator and performing the following substitutions: ${\displaystyle u=\sec \theta +\tan \theta }$ and ${\displaystyle du=(\sec \theta \tan \theta +\sec ^{2}\theta )\,d\theta }$.

The integral is evaluated as follows:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int \sec \theta \,d\theta &=\int {\frac {\sec \theta (\sec \theta +\tan \theta )}{\sec \theta +\tan \theta }}\,d\theta \\[6pt]&=\int {\frac {(\sec ^{2}\theta +\sec \theta \tan \theta )\,d\theta }{\sec \theta +\tan \theta }}&&u=\sec \theta +\tan \theta \\[6pt]&=\int {\frac {du}{u}}&&du=(\sec \theta \tan \theta +\sec ^{2}\theta )\,d\theta \\[6pt]&=\ln |u|+C=\ln |\sec \theta +\tan \theta |+C,\end{aligned}}}$

as claimed. This was the formula discovered by James Gregory.[1]

Although Gregory proved the conjecture in 1668 in his Exercitationes Geometricae, the proof was presented in a form that renders it nearly impossible for modern readers to comprehend; Isaac Barrow, in his Geometrical Lectures of 1670,[9] gave the first "intelligible" proof, though even that was "couched in the geometric idiom of the day."[2] Barrow's proof of the result was the earliest use of partial fractions in integration.[2] Adapted to modern notation, Barrow's proof began as follows:

${\displaystyle \int \sec \theta \,d\theta =\int {\frac {d\theta }{\cos \theta }}=\int {\frac {\cos \theta \,d\theta }{\cos ^{2}\theta }}=\int {\frac {\cos \theta \,d\theta }{1-\sin ^{2}\theta }}}$

Substituting ${\displaystyle u}$ for ${\displaystyle \sin \theta }$ reduces the integral to

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int {\frac {du}{1-u^{2}}}&=\int {\frac {du}{(1+u)(1-u)}}={\dfrac {1}{2}}\int \left({\frac {1}{1+u}}+{\frac {1}{1-u}}\right)\,du\\[10pt]&={\frac {1}{2}}\left(\ln \left|1+u\right|-\ln \left|1-u\right|\right)+C={\frac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\frac {1+u}{1-u}}\right|+C\end{aligned}}}$

Therefore,

${\displaystyle \int \sec \theta \,d\theta ={\frac {1}{2}}\ln \left|{\frac {1+\sin \theta }{1-\sin \theta }}\right|+C,}$

as expected.

The formulas for the Weierstrass substitution are as follows. Let ${\displaystyle t=\tan(\theta /2)}$, where ${\displaystyle -\pi <\theta <\pi }$. Then[10]

${\displaystyle \sin \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)={\frac {t}{\sqrt {1+t^{2}}}}\qquad {\text{and}}\qquad \cos \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+t^{2}}}}.}$

Hence,

${\displaystyle \sin \theta ={\frac {2t}{1+t^{2}}},\qquad \cos \theta ={\frac {1-t^{2}}{1+t^{2}}},\qquad {\text{and}}\qquad d\theta ={\frac {2}{1+t^{2}}}\,dt,}$

by the double-angle formulas. As for the integral of the secant function,

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int \sec \theta \,d\theta &=\int {\frac {d\theta }{\cos \theta }}=\int {\frac {1+t^{2}}{1-t^{2}}}{\frac {2}{1+t^{2}}}dt&&t=\tan {\frac {\theta }{2}}\\[6pt]&=\int {\frac {2\,dt}{1-t^{2}}}=\int {\frac {2\,dt}{(1-t)(1+t)}}\\[6pt]&=\int 2\left[{\frac {1}{2(1+t)}}+{\frac {1}{2(1-t)}}\right]dt&&{\text{partial fraction decomposition}}\\[6pt]&=\int \left({\frac {1}{t+1}}-{\frac {1}{t-1}}\right)dt\\[6pt]&=\ln |t+1|-\ln |t-1|+C=\ln \left|{\frac {t+1}{t-1}}\right|+C\\[6pt]&=\ln \left|{\frac {t+1}{t-1}}\cdot {\frac {t+1}{t+1}}\right|+C=\ln \left|{\frac {t^{2}+2t+1}{t^{2}-1}}\right|+C\\[6pt]&=\ln \left|{\frac {t^{2}+1}{t^{2}-1}}+{\frac {2t}{t^{2}-1}}\right|+C=\ln \left|{\frac {t^{2}+1}{t^{2}-1}}+{\frac {2t}{t^{2}-1}}\cdot {\frac {t^{2}+1}{t^{2}+1}}\right|+C\\[6pt]&=\ln \left|{\frac {t^{2}+1}{t^{2}-1}}+{\frac {2t}{t^{2}+1}}\cdot {\frac {t^{2}+1}{t^{2}-1}}\right|+C\\[6pt]&=\ln \left|{\frac {1}{\cos \theta }}+\sin \theta \cdot {\frac {1}{\cos \theta }}\right|+C=\ln |\sec \theta +\tan \theta |+C,\end{aligned}}}$

as before.

The integral can also be derived by using the a somewhat non-standard version of the Weierstrass substitution, which is simpler in the case of this particular integral, published in 2013,[11] is as follows:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&x=\tan \left({\frac {\pi }{4}}+{\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\\[10pt]&{\frac {2x}{1+x^{2}}}=2\sin \left({\frac {\pi }{4}}+{\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {\pi }{4}}+{\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)=\sin \left({\frac {\pi }{2}}+\theta \right)=\cos \theta \\[10pt]&dx={\frac {1}{2}}\sec ^{2}\left({\frac {\pi }{4}}+{\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)d\theta ={\frac {1}{2}}(1+x^{2})d\theta \\[10pt]&{\frac {2\,dx}{1+x^{2}}}=d\theta \\[10pt]\int \sec \theta \,d\theta &=\int \left({\frac {1+x^{2}}{2x}}\right)\left({\frac {2}{1+x^{2}}}\right)\,dx=\int {\frac {dx}{x}}=\ln |x|+C=\ln \left|\tan \left({\frac {\pi }{4}}+{\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\right|+C.\end{aligned}}}$