Lund Cathedral

The crypt, the oldest part of Lund Cathedral.

The apse is the most well-preserved part of the original exterior.

The earliest written mention of a church in Lund dedicated to Saint Lawrence – the patron saint of Lund Cathedral during the Middle Ages – dates from 1085.[13] Slightly later sources mention both a new and an old church dedicated to Saint Lawrence.[14] During the 1940s, archaeological excavations in the cathedral uncovered the foundations of another church inside the present building. The exact age, shape and function of this predecessor to the cathedral has been a matter of some debate.[15][16] Most scholars believe that construction of a church on the site of Lund Cathedral was begun sometime during the second half of the 11th century.[2] Some time thereafter a new church was begun in almost the same place, but to a larger design in the form of the present cathedral. Parts of the earlier church may have been incorporated in the walls of the cathedral.[2][4] The decision to abandon Dalby as a bishopric and make Lund the sole archbishopric in Scandinavia may have prompted the change of plans.[17]

Apart from the obscurity which thus surrounds the very beginning of the history of the cathedral, the construction of Lund Cathedral is probably among the most well documented among any Romanesque churches.[18] Two contemporary accounts of the building of the cathedral, in the form of the illuminated manuscripts Necrologium Lundense and Liber daticus vetustior, are still preserved in the library of Lund University. Both books contain notes, written in Latin, with dates of the progression of the construction. The oldest part of the cathedral is the large crypt. Its main altar was inaugurated on 30 June 1123, followed by the north (1126) and south (1131) side altars of the crypt. Only then did the cathedral begin to be used.[18] One of the main functions of the crypt appears to have been as a place where baptisms were conducted.[19] The main altar of the cathedral was dedicated to Saint Mary and Saint Lawrence on 1 September 1145, by the second archbishop of Lund, Eskil, in a ceremony attended by bishops from present-day Germany, Denmark and Sweden.[20] By then, the construction of the cathedral to more or less its present dimensions was complete.[21][22]

Unusually for that time, the architect of the cathedral is known by his name, Donatus.[2][21][23] The name appears in both the Necrologium Lundense (as "Donatus architectus") and the Liber daticus vetustior. Donatus may have been responsible for the layout of the crypt and the cathedral above ground as far west as the current north and south portals of the cathedral, although it is difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about his precise role.[21][24] The same is true for his successor, possibly a builder named Ragnar.[25] The building erected during the time of Donatus and his successor show clear influences from Romanesque architecture in Lombardy, conveyed via the Rhine Valley.[26] Donatus himself appears to have been from, or at least educated in, Lombardy.[27] Speyer Cathedral in western Germany is stylistically closely related to Lund Cathedral (especially the crypt), and it has been proposed that Donatus came to Lund from Speyer, where construction more or less ceased in 1106 following the death of Emperor Henry IV.[28][29] Similarities have also frequently been pointed out between Lund Cathedral and Mainz Cathedral, and the design of the apse is similar to that of the Basilica of Saint Servatius in Maastricht.[30] On a more general level, the origins of the style of Lund Cathedral can be found in Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio (Milan), Modena Cathedral and several churches in Pavia, all in northern Italy.[31] Similar stylistic influences can be seen in other cathedrals in Denmark from the same time, for example in Ribe Cathedral.[24]

The building of Lund Cathedral must have involved a large number of people and was a collective undertaking.[30] Comparable but somewhat later workshops at Cologne Cathedral and Uppsala Cathedral employed a workforce of about 100 and 60 people, respectively.[30] The project was instrumental in establishing a workshop where local craftsmen could be educated, and thus disseminating artistic influences from continental Europe to Scandinavia. The stone sculptors Carl stenmästare, Mårten stenmästare and Majestatis were probably all Scandinavians who were educated at the construction site.[31] Many early Romanesque stone churches in the countryside, particularly in Scania but also in the rest of Sweden, show direct influences from Lund Cathedral, notably Vä Church (Scania).[32][33] Other examples are e.g. Lannaskede Old Church (Småland), Hogstad Church (Östergötland) and Havdhem Church (Gotland).[34]

The plan and layout of the building consecrated in 1145 was similar to the one seen today. A noticeable difference was that the entire choir was separated from the nave by a wall and reserved for the clergy. The towers were also not built until a few decades later.[35][36] The intention was probably to provide the cathedral with vaults, but instead a flat wooden ceiling was installed.[37] The cathedral was adorned with wall paintings and almost certainly by stained glass windows, but none of these remain.[26] In 1234, the cathedral was heavily damaged by a large fire.[38] Large donations were made to the church in the following years, to allow for repairs.[39] Even so, the need for repairs was continuous for the entire 13th century.[40] Following the fire, the burnt-out ceiling was replaced by brick vaults.[35] Changes were also made to the layout of the westernmost part of the building.[41] A conflict erupted between King Christopher I of Denmark and Archbishop Jakob Erlandsen in 1257 partially because the choir had been enlarged and the seats of the royal family moved, itself a testimony of the growing power of the Church.[42] Two chapels were added to the cathedral during the 14th and 15th centuries; one located adjacent to the two westernmost bays of the south aisle of the nave, and the other as a western extension of the south transept.[43] Buttresses were also added piecemeal to the building during the 13th and 14th centuries, to stabilise the building which was under strain from the new, heavier vaults, the added chapels and the constant ringing of the 8.5 tonne church bell.[44]

A drawing of the cathedral as it appeared in 1750

The German sculptor and builder Adam van Düren apparently worked intermittently at restoring and altering the cathedral between c. 1506 or 1507 and 1524.[45] Despite, and to some extent because of, the work that had been done during the preceding centuries since the great fire of 1234, the cathedral was in need of a thorough restoration.[46] Adam van Düren and his workshop made several changes and contributions. A new drainage system was installed in the crypt, and as part of that work a well, which probably replaced an earlier well in the same location, was decorated with satirical allegories.[47][48] The workshop of van Düren also created two new windows in the choir, built a large buttress to support the southern transept (before 1513), and rebuilt the gable of the northern transept (1524) as well as its vaults. New and considerably larger windows with pointed arches were installed in both the northern wall of the north transept and in the southern wall of the south transept.[47][49] The towers and western facade were also repaired in 1512–18 and again in 1527.[50] It has been argued that the cathedral may have collapsed, were it not for the work done by van Düren.[51]

Following the Reformation in the 16th century, the diocese lost much of its revenues.[52] The building was still subjected to much stress, not least by the use of the large church bell, and suffered during the recurrent wars between Denmark and Sweden; in 1658 Lund permanently became part of Sweden. Despite van Düren's repairs, the church was described as being "very dilapidated" in 1682.[53] During the 18th century, the chapels of the church were used for funerals, but also as an improvised morgue where corpses were occasionally left for several years.[54] Attempts at repairs were made; among them the entire apse was dismantled and then re-erected.[47] Many of the repairs were however either temporary or outright detrimental to the condition of the building. King Gustav III of Sweden visited the cathedral crypt in 1785 and expressed his displeasure at its state.[55][56] In 1812, the aforementioned chapels from the 14th and 15th centuries were demolished.[57]

Demolition of the north tower of the cathedral during the time of Helgo Zettervall.

When the congregation wanted to build a new church organ in the early 19th century, architect Axel Nyström was invited to examine the structure in 1832. Nyström recommended a complete renovation of the cathedral.[57] The chairman of the council in charge of administering the cathedral buildings, Carl Georg Brunius, was called to execute the plans of Nyström, and he did so while at the same time making changes according to his own convictions. He also wrote the first systematic art history of the cathedral.[58] Brunius had the organ moved, the crypt repaired, installed a set of steps connecting the choir with the nave and improved the drainage system.[58] He also removed modern furnishings, re-built some of the buttresses and changed the stone of a large part of the facade.[59] Brunius retired due to old age in 1859, but as there was still a substantial need for repairs, the young architect Helgo Zettervall was appointed to carry out the rest of the work in 1860.[60] A conflict between Brunius and Zettervall developed almost immediately, but Zettervall would keep working on restoring the cathedral until 1893 and ultimately managed to implement most of his ideas for the cathedral.[58][61] A compromise in 1862 proposed that the Danish architect Ferdinand Meldahl would assume the main responsibility, and Zettervall would merely assist Meldahl. However, it soon became apparent that Zettervall would not accept a subordinate role and Meldahl himself showed little interest in the project.[62] In 1862, Zettervall traveled extensively through Germany and Italy to study stylistically related architecture, and also to visit the latest examples of building restoration so that he could draw upon that experience in his work at Lund.[63] In 1863, he presented a first proposal for a complete restoration of the cathedral. Zettervall himself considered it a "reasonable middle ground between reparation and reconstruction".[64] The proposal would mean the removal of all buttresses, a new roof, completely rebuilt towers, and the removal of the large Gothic windows in the transepts. Zettervall also proposed to add an octagonal dome over the crossing. Far-reaching changes would also affect the interior. In the proposal Zettervall strove to reduce and refine the building volumes of the cathedral and create a unified composition of block-like elements.[65]

The proposal by Zettervall was criticised, not least by Meldahl. Zettervall re-worked the proposal and put forward a revised, less far-reaching proposal in 1864, notably without the central dome.[66] This proposal was also rejected and the plan for a complete overhaul abandoned; however it was at the same time decided that Zettervall would continue working on repairing the cathedral and every year make what changes that were deemed necessary. In this way, Zettervall could piecemeal over the next decades to rebuild the cathedral largely in line with his design from 1864.[58][67]

Between 1832 and 1893, the cathedral was radically transformed by the work of Brunius and Zettervall. All windows were replaced, several vaults and pillars were repaired or rebuilt, and both architects effected extensive changes to the transept. Just as he had suggested, Zettervall had all the buttresses removed and demolished the entire western part of the church, including the towers, and rebuilt them according to his own Neo-Romanesque designs.[68][69]

In the 20th century, archaeological excavations were carried out in and around the cathedral. The building also underwent a major restoration in 1954–1963, led by architect Eiler Græbe. During this time the decorative painting from the 19th century was removed.[69] The large mosaic decorating the apse was installed in 1927, and designed by Joakim Skovgaard.[35][70] In 1990, the layout of the choir was changed and the altar placed in the crossing.[69] Pope Francis visited the cathedral on 31 October 2016 to observe the 499th anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation.[71]

"The giant Finn and his wife" in the crypt, probably a depiction of the biblical hero Samson.

When it comes to stone sculpture, Lund Cathedral was the most lavishly decorated Romanesque building to be built in the Nordic countries, according to art historian Jan Svanberg,[80] and its sculptures are of recognised high artistic quality.[81] Perhaps the most well-known and striking of these are the sculptures of two figures traditionally called "The giant Finn and his wife" in the crypt.[82] According to a local legend, the giant helped build the cathedral, and when he was not paid for his services he tried to destroy it by shaking the pillars, but was petrified.[83] The larger of the two figures is embracing a column, while the smaller is attached to another column with a rope. These sculptures have probably been the subject of more attempts at an explanation than any other medieval artworks in Sweden, according to art historian Mereth Lindgren.[84] Most scholars today believe the larger sculpture depicts Samson, but what the smaller figure is supposed to represent is not known. The sculptures date from the construction of the crypt but have been treated poorly, especially during the 18th century, and lost much of their original detailing.[84]

The fluted columns also found in the crypt are similar in style to English Norman architecture and may indicate that the very first artistic influences came from the area bordering the English Channel.[85] Apart from these columns however, the rich stone ornamentation is clearly Lombardic in style, meaning related to north Italian art of the period.[26] Among these is a baldachin now immured in the east wall of the north transept which may have been part of the original western facade; Its columns have Corinthian capitals and support a richly decorated archivolt on which traces of original paint survives. Opposite, in the south wall, is a smaller baldachin where the columns themselves are sculpted angels (one with feather tights) standing on lions. Similar sculptures exist in Como and Modena in northern Italy.[86] In addition, the capitals of the columns in the church are all of high artisanal quality, and can be broadly divided into two groups displaying either Classical or Byzantine influences.[82] Apart from its rich Romanesque decoration, Lund Cathedral also contains several late medieval sculptures made by Adam van Düren, as mentioned above. Several of these are of animals and contain inscriptions in Low German. A relief in the south transept displaying the Woman of the Apocalypse flanked by Saint Lawrence and Saint Canute is similar to the portal relief van Düren made a couple of years earlier at Glimmingehus.[87]

The medieval main altarpiece was donated to the cathedral in 1398 by Ide Pedersdatter Falk.[88] The altarpiece is one of a group of stylistically similar altarpieces and made in some north Germany city, probably by Master Bertram or in his workshop.[89] Its central panel depicts the Coronation of the Virgin, surrounded by two rows of 40 saints, 26 of which are original. Twelve figures have been taken from other medieval altarpieces, while two of the added figures are from the 17th century. The altarpiece is 7.6 metres (25 ft) wide but is missing an original pair of wings.[90][91]

The right side of the choir, showing parts of the choir stalls (right) and the main altarpiece (left).

The choir contains two rows of medieval choir stalls containing in total 78 seats. The wooden stalls date from the end of the 14th century, probably commissioned by archbishop Nils Jönson some time between 1361 and 1379. Clearly made by several different wood carvers, they are approximately 3 metres (9.8 ft) tall without their gables and decorated with carved details. These are biblical scenes from both the Old and New Testament, but the stalls also contain misericords portraying animals and other small details. Their style is High Gothic and they are stylistically linked with contemporary art from the Rhine Valley. They are among the largest wooden Gothic sculptures to survive in the Nordic countries, and have been described as being of internationally high quality.[92] The choir stalls in Lund Cathedral also lent stylistic inspiration to the choir stalls in Roskilde Cathedral and St. Bendt's Church, Ringsted.[92][93]

Slightly older than the choir stalls is a bishop's throne which survives in a damaged state and is placed in the south transept. It is somewhat similar in construction to the choir stalls but stylistically different and more closely related to contemporary art from north Germany.[94] Currently placed next to the bishop's chair is also a Gothic tabernacle in the form of a 5 metres (16 ft) tall, decorated wooden pillar. It contains two cabinets surmounted by a statuette of a female saint and crowned by a hexagonal spire. The tabernacle was repaired by Brunius in the 19th century. The saint may be Ida von Toggenburg.[95]

The astronomical clock

The astronomical clock of Lund Cathedral, presently located at the west end of the north aisle, dates from the late Middle Ages and was installed in Lund Cathedral c. 1425. In 1837, it was dismantled. It was restored at the initiative of architect Theodor Wåhlin and the Danish clockmaker Julius Bertram Larsen and re-inaugurated in 1923. The upper part, which is original, is the clock, while the lower part, a reconstruction, is a calendar. Twice every day the two knights on the top clash their swords. The clock then plays the tune In dulci jubilo and a procession of figures representing the three Kings with their servants parade across the face of the clock.[96] Similar clocks from approximately the same period are known from several churches in towns in the south Baltic Sea area. Especially the clocks in Doberan Minster and St. Nicholas Church, Stralsund are very similar, and it is possible that the clockmaker Nikolaus Lilienfeld who made the clock in Stralsund also made the clock in Lund.[97] The clock was repaired 2009–2010.[35][98][99]

A decorated conventional clock from 1623 is immured on the opposite side of the nave, in the west wall of the south aisle.[52]

The cathedral also owns three High Gothic bronze columns carrying statuettes, the oldest remaining furnishings in the cathedral, and a seven-branched candelabrum from the end of the Middle Ages.[100] Two of the bronze columns are crowned by angels, and the third one by a statuette of Saint Lawrence, holding a gridiron, the symbol of his martyrdom. It probably dates from the middle of the 14th century, while the two angel-bearing columns may be somewhat later. Saint Lawrence's column is approximately 3 metres (9.8 ft) tall (and the saint 70 centimetres (28 in)), while the columns with angels are slightly smaller.[101] The three columns were probably made in Lübeck or Hamburg. Presently located in the south transept is also the 3.5 metres (11 ft) tall seven-branched candelabrum or candle holder from the late 15th century, manufactured by Harmen Bonstede in Hamburg.[102] It was supplied to the cathedral in a dismantled state, and traces of its assembly instruction are still discernible on the candelabrum. Similar candelabra were installed in a number of Scandinavian cathedrals at approximately the same time; although the one in Lund is larger than those in the cathedrals of Aarhus, Ribe, Viborg and Stockholm.[102][103]

The current pulpit was commissioned at the end of the 16th century and is marked with the date 1592. The artist was Johannes Ganssog from Frankfurt an der Oder in present-day Germany. It is attached with unusual technical skill to one of the pillars of the nave, and it is entered through a stair cut inside the pillar. The building material is sandstone, black limestone and black and white marble, and it is partially painted and gilded. Reliefs of alabaster on the side show scenes from the New Testament.[104][35]

The grave of Hermann of Schleswig, 12th century, the oldest grave in the crypt.

Several people have been buried in the cathedral. The crypt contains the oldest grave in the cathedral, the grave of Hermann of Schleswig, who played an important role as an emissary of archbishop Ascer of Lund to the Pope and who may have written parts of the aforementioned Necrologium Lundense. The simple Romanesque sarcophagus, which has an inscription in Latin and a depiction of the titular bishop, is located in the apse of the crypt. It dates from the middle of the 12th century.[3][105] The crypt also contains the much larger grave monument of the last archbishop, Birger Gunnersen, which is centrally placed in the crypt. It is of a kind which is not unusual in continental Europe but very unusual in the Nordic countries: a large stone sarcophagus decorated on all sides with sculptures in high relief and with a full-scale depiction of the bishop in full dress on the lid. It was made by Adam van Düren in 1512.[106][107] The cathedral's largest grave monument is that of bishop Hans Brostorp, who died in 1497 and who during his lifetime inaugurated the University of Copenhagen. The monument is made of limestone from Gotland and decorated in low relief.[108]

The nave and the aisles contain several memorial plaques and epitaphs. Several commemorate bishops, such as Johan Engeström (1699–1777) and Nils Hesslén (1728–1811). Many others were made for professors at Lund University, e.g. Eberhard Rosenblad (1714–1796) and Erasmus Sack (1633–1697). The oldest epitaph of the cathedral commemorates the owner of Krageholm Castle Lave Brahe (1500–1567) and his wife Görvel Fadersdotter (Sparre) (1509 or 1517 – 1605).[109]

The baptismal font of the cathedral is a sparsely decorated Early Gothic font made of reddish grey limestone.[35]