Military history of South Africa during World War I

South Africa's participation in the First World War occurred automatically when the British Government declared war on Germany in August 1914. Due to her status as a Dominion within the British Empire, South Africa, whilst having significant levels of self-autonomy, did not have the legal power to exercise an independent foreign policy to that of Great Britain and was tied to her proclamation.

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Battle of Delville Wood, July 1916. One of South Africa's most famous, and costliest, battles during the First World War.

In 1914, South Africa was far from being a united country with a singular national identity. Union had occurred only four years previously, and the peace after the Second Boer War (1899 - 1902) had not yet healed the deep and traumatic ethnic divisions within the white population.

The declaration of the war was cause for subdued patriotic fervour by some races and outright rebellion by others. Predominantly, English-speaking whites were by far the most supportive, strongly backing backing the Mother Country of Britain and volunteering in their tens of thousands. Pro-republican Afrikaners, outraged by British influence, even staged an armed rebellion against the Government in 1914 in an attempt to re-establish their independence and reject the British Crown. Black South Africans were largely apathetic to the declaration. Barred by racial legislation from being allowed to carry weapons, many still joined the national labour service[1] and thousands were deployed to France as non-combatants to undertake manual work. Whilst some saw it as a 'white man's war', others were convinced that loyalty to the British Crown would be rewarded and their political situation would improve once the war was won. The South African Native National Congress, the forerunner of the African National Congress, publicly announced the cessation of law action against the Government, pledging complete national support for the war effort.

Between 1914 and 1918, over 250,000 South Africans of all races, out of a population of 6 million, volunteered to serve their country. Thousands more served in the British Army directly, with over 3,000 joining the British Royal Flying Corps. More than 146,000 Whites, 83,000 Blacks, and 2,500 Coloureds and Asians fought in either German South West Africa, East Africa, the Middle East, or in Europe on the Western Front. Over 7,000 South Africans were killed, and nearly 12,000 were wounded during the course of the war. Eight South Africans won the Victoria Cross for gallantry, the Empire’s highest and prestigious military medal.

Outbreak of war

Following the British declaration of war against Germany on 4 August 1914, South Africa was consequently automatically entangled in the conflict due to her status as a Dominion within the British Empire.[2] Although with significant levels of self-government South Africa, along with Australia, New Zealand, and Canada for example, were only semi-independent and could not exercise an autonomous foreign policy separate to that of the United Kingdom.[3]

It was seen by South African Prime Minister, Louis Botha, that the war offered an opportunity for territorial expansion,[4] and that South Africa could possibly incorporate the small neighbouring colonies of Basutoland (Lesotho), Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Swaziland. German South-West Africa similarly proved a tempting aspiration.[5] Defence Minister General Jan Smuts even muted plans that should German East Africa be occupied, the territory could be used in negotiations with the Portuguese in exchange for the southern half of Mozambique. Such an agreement would allow the industrial region of the Transvaal to utilise the more immediate and adjacent ports of Beira and Lourenco Marques (Maputo).[6]

Although Britain refused to cede colonies to South Africa and was equally reluctant to discuss any post-war territorial claims, Prime Minister Botha and General Smuts became active and trusted members of the British Imperial War Cabinet.[7] It was soon agreed that South Africa was able to adequately defend itself and that British garrison forces could be withdrawn to fight in Europe. Further discussions acknowledged that South Africa would be well placed to mount an invasion of German South-West Africa, particularly to seize key naval installations and wireless communication centres.[8]

South African politics and African nationalism
Prime Minister Louis Botha and Jan Smuts in British Uniform, 1917

After the establishment of the Union in 1910, the first South African government was formed by the South African Party (SAP) which had won 67 of the 121 parliamentary seats available.[9] Led by the former Boer veteran Louis Botha, the SAP pursued a reconciliatory relationship with Britain, was favourable to South Africa being a self-governing Dominion within the Empire, and generally supported by moderates of all races. In the immediate years before the First World War, South Africa routinely used force to suppress both black and white labour unrest, particularly in the economically vital mines.[10] As Minister of Mines, Jan Smuts in July 1913 deployed troops to quell a strike of over 18,000 white workers. After requesting in Police, Mounted Riflemen, and even British garrison forces, the strike escalated into a wider industrial riot and then quasi-uprising against the Government. With increasing violence and death being reported in Johannesburg, martial law was declared after public property was destroyed and troops responded with live fire. More than 20 people were killed and fears were so great that Johannesburg and critical mine infrastructure would be destroyed, that Botha and Smuts hurried from Pretoria to negotiate with the strikers directly. Although Smuts despised the agreement that stated workers grievances would be investigated and those dismissed would be reinstated, he signed after being informed that government troops were beginning to lose control.[11] Later in 1913, the South African Mounted Rifles were deployed to persuade Mahatma Gandhi into calling off an Indian led strike in Natal. When another general strike occurred the following year in January 1914, Smuts, who was determined not to concede again, crushed the walkout with over 10,000 troops, machine guns and artillery. [5]

By the end of 1914, disillusioned Afrikaners increasingly resented the support that South Africa was giving Britain, and British imperialism, during the First World War, as well the perception that Afrikaner culture was being neglected and should be developed separately from English-speaking whites.[12] [13]J.B.M. Hertzog, another Boer veteran and former Minister of Justice under Botha, formed the National Party (NP) which gained 20 new seats in the 1915 October election[14] - forcing the SAP to become a minority government for the rest of the war with parliamentary support from the pro-British, Natal based Unionist Party. [15]

In 1912, the South African Native National Congress - later renamed the ANC - was founded in Bloemfontein as an organisation that could defend and advance black rights and freedoms on a national scale.[16] As the first western-styled African political organisation, the founding members, who themselves were members of the elite and saw themselves as gentlemen, almost exclusively undertook legal campaigns against racial discrimination. In August 1914, the SANNC temporarily suspended its campaign against the Natives Land Act (banning Africans from purchasing land outside the reserves) and declared nationwide support for the war effort. [17]

An SANNC delegation that was already in London, as well as sympathetic newspapers, proposed that black Africans could volunteer to fight for South Africa in exchange for an improvement in civil rights.[18] [19] Denied permission to serve on the front lines, the SANNC supported the creation of the unarmed South African Native Labour Corps as a way to participate in the war and serve South Africa. Similarly, the African Political Organisation (APO), which was also founded in 1912 to promote Coloured people, had organised over 10,000 potential volunteers as early as December 1914.[20] Although the Coloured, Indian, and black establishment had hoped that enthusiastic and genuine support for the war would be an opportunity to gain equal status, they were to be left bitterly disappointed as they went unrewarded and civil rights continued to be denied after the Treaty of Versailles.[21]

Union Defence Force
Main article: Union Defence Force (South Africa)

After the formation of the Union of South Africa, in 1910, Jan Smuts placed a high priority on establishing a unified national military that would be responsible for national defence. The Defence Act (No. 13) of 1912 saw the creation of the Union Defence Force (UDF) which was made up of a Permanent Force of career soldiers, an Active Citizen Force of conscripts and volunteers, as well a Cadet force.[22] [23] It was not considered financially or practically realistic at this time for South Africa to undertake naval responsibility as well, and continued to rely on the Royal Navy. Although the UDF had been intended to blend British and Boer military traditions together, the reality saw the organisation draw heavily on British tradition and alienated Afrikaners by favouring the English language.[24]

Due to South Africa’s attitudes towards racial segregation, at the time, only White South Africans were allowed to be armed and serve in combat due to fears that a multi-racial army would undermine racial separation in wider South African society.[22] In peacetime all white males aged between 17 and 25 were eligible for compulsory military service, although only around half were chosen for duty by the use of a lottery system. Compulsory cadet training was organised for white males between the ages of 13 and 17, and a General Reserve of local rifle associations and former Boer commandos was also developed. [25]

At the outbreak of the First World War, the Union Defence Force of South Africa consisted of the small, but professional, Permanent Force of 2,500 South African Mounted Riflemen in five regiments with artillery sections, alongside an Active Citizen Force of nearly 23,000 conscripts and volunteers. Due to the political sensitivity within South Africa, enforced conscription could never be enacted. [26]

As the war progressed and casualties mounted, in September 1915 the Government changed slightly from racial principals and decided to raise infantry battalions for Cape Coloured men wishing to serve. Open from 25 October, the first recruitment station at City Hall in Cape Town was so overwhelmed with applicants that it later required police assistance to control the crowd. Recruiting stations were later opened in Stellenbosch, Worcester, Port Elizabeth, Kimberley to name a few, all with similar levels of high interest by the Coloured population. The Cape Corps was generally expected to undertake non-combatant roles such as transport, pioneers, and guard details.[27]

In 1916, the Government responded to British requests for manual workers to help operate French infrastructure due to a severe labour shortage by establishing the South African Native Labour Corps (SANLC).[28] Open to black South Africans, there was large scale opposition from many sections of South African society, including black opposition. Although paid around 10% more a month than average labourers, sections of the black population feared that the man's absence might make it easier for his family to be evicted at home. Meanwhile, white society feared the loss of cheap labour and the effect of exposure to Europe and European politics would have on the attitudes of the black population once they returned. Nevertheless, the SANLC went on to recruit 25,000 men, with 21,000 being transported to France.[29]

Maritz Rebellion
Main article: Maritz rebellion

As the South African War had ended just twelve years previously, and with the memories of the horrific suffering experienced by some Afrikaners in British concentration camps still fresh, there was a significant amount of opposition against the declaration of war in support of Britain.[30][31] Known as the Martiz Rebellion, or the Boer Revolt, around 12,000 Afrikaners undertook an armed insurrection against the South African Government in October 1914 after refusing to invade German South-West Africa.[32]

Flag of the Maritz Rebellion, 1914

Nationalist republicans such as C.F. Beyers, Christiaan de Wet, Jan Kemp, and Manie Maritz, including many other senior military officers had resigned their commissions and gathered around the ‘Boer prophet’ Nicolaas van Rensburg.[33][34] During an attempted military coup on 15 September 1914, Koos de la Rey, a famous Boer military commander, was shot and killed after his car failed to stop at a police checkpoint.[35] A further military coup took place a month later after a military force, led by Manie Maritz, refused to advance his column into German South-West Africa, leaving the second column dangerously exposed. After disarming loyalist soldiers, Maritz declared South Africa to be independent and contacted the Germans.[36]

By late October, over nearly 12,000 armed Boer rebels had been recruited and had occupied local towns and launched uncoordinated attacks on trains. Rejecting outside British or Imperial assistance, Botha decided to confront the rebellion with his own force of 32,000 loyalists, mostly Afrikaners themselves.[37] In the Orange Free State at Winburg, 5,000 rebels under de Wet were encircled and surrendered on 12 November.[38] Shortly after, loyalist forces routed Beyers at Bultfontein where he himself later drowned after trying to escape over the Vaal River.[39] [40] By December 1914, the rebellion had been effectively crushed within South Africa. Kemp and several hundred rebels had fled across the Kalahari Desert, riding over 800 miles, into German territory where they were warmly welcomed and combined with Maritz.[41]

Over 1,000 people were killed or wounded during the rebellion, however, Prime Minister Botha encouraged national reconciliation and often showed mercy.[42] Of the 239 rebels that faced trial, only around 50 remained in prison by the end of 1915. Van Rensburg received an 18-month sentence, Kemp served a year and nine months out of seven years, and de Wet served six months of his six-year sentence. Maritz had initially fled to Angola before returning to South Africa to serve three years. Only Jopie Fourie, a rebel who had forgotten to resign his military commission, was executed for treason.[43][44] English-speaking whites considered the sentences scandalous and far too lenient. Black leaders of emerging political organisations noticed the double standard in comparison to the harsh justice handed to the rebels of the Zulu Rebellion in 1906.[45][46] Afrikaner nationalists continued to celebrate the rebels well into the 20th Century, and in August 1915 7,000 Afrikaner women marched in Pretoria to demand total amnesty.[47]

German South-West Africa Campaign (1914 - 1915)
Main article: South West Africa campaign

On 7 August 1914, three days after the declaration of war, Britain requested that South African troops capture the three German wireless communication stations at Windhoek, Swakopmund and Luderitzbucht in German South-West Africa. With the South African-German border being mostly open desert and absent of water, this difficult terrain allowed the German colonial forces, numbering around 3,000 regular Schutztruppe and 7,000 militia to deploy defensively along expected lines of attack. The first invasion attempt of the colony failed at the Battle of Sandfontein on 26 September 1914. German troops inflicted heavy casualties on the advancing South Africans, however, allowed survivors to escape without harm.[48]

South African military officers pose with German flag at governor's residence, Windhoek - 1915

As a consequence of the Maritz Rebellion which caused a serious disruption within South Africa, German forces undertook a pre-emptive invasion alongside Boer rebels. In December 1914 a German offensive crossed the Orange River and threatened the South African town of Upington. After numerous disagreements between German and Boer commanders, a badly coordinated attack at Upington in January 1915 was repulsed by South African forces under Jacob van Deventer. A supporting German offensive was later halted and pushed back on 4 February 1915 at the Battle of Kakamas, a skirmish for control of two crossings over the Orange River.[49][50]

As the home front became more secure, South African forces began to occupy German South-West Africa from March 1915. Prime Minister Botha personally took command of the northern invasion force that had landed at the coastal town of Swakopmund on 11 February.[51] Advancing along the Swakop valley railway line, the northern force captured Otjimbinge, Karibib, Friedrichsfelde, Wilhelmsthal and Okahandja. On 5 May 1915 Botha occupied the colonial capital of Windhoek. [52]

Despite German Colonial Forces offering terms of surrender after Windhoek fell, Botha rejected these calls[52] and continued the offensive after dividing his force into four sections under Brits, Lukin, Manie Botha, and Myburgh. Brits marched north to the Etosha Pan which cut German interior forces from access to coastal regions, while the other three sections marched northeast roughly following the Swakopmund to Tsumeb railway line. Led by former Boer Commandos, the sections moved extremely swiftly despite the harsh landscape conditions. German forces had made a stand at the Battle of Otavi on 1 July, however, later surrendered at Khorab on 9 July 1915.[53] [48]

During these actions, General Smuts had landed with another South African force at the coastal town of Lüderitz and advanced inland. After capturing Keetmanshoop on 20 May, Smuts was met by two other South African columns that had pushed up from Port Nolloth and Kimberley. After marching along the railway line towards Beseba, Smuts captured the village of Gibeon on 26 May after two days fighting. German forces retreated north seeking support from their capital, however, were met by General Botha instead where they duly surrendered.[48] [54]

South Africa committed 78,000 men troops to the South-West Africa campaign - 45,000 White, and 33,000 African, Coloured, and Indian unarmed volunteers that worked as general labour, drivers, and railway workers. Despite South African racial regulation, a Coloured armed scout detachment was formed by those familiar with the terrain. During the course of the campaign, South Africa lost 113 men with 263 wounded. Another 153 died of disease or accidents.[55]

German Colonial Forces, although believed by Botha to be much larger than officially claimed, had a mixture of 2 to 3,000 mounted European infantry, and a reserve of over 3,000 volunteers supported by artillery, machine guns and three aircraft. Germany endured over 1,000 casualties, with 103 killed. Around 4,000 soldiers surrendered, along with 37 field and 22 machine guns.[56] 

Although South Africa had desired to incorporate the territory into the Union officially, in 1919 the League of Nations granted only a Class C mandate to administer the colony until ready for self-government.[57] Despite this, South-West Africa became a de facto ‘fifth province’, as well as having representation in the South African Parliament, until Namibian independence in 1990. [58] 

South African Overseas Expeditionary Force

Main article: South African Overseas Expeditionary Force

Organisation

The South African Union Defence Act of 1914 forbade the deployment of South African troops outside of its national borders and immediate surrounding territories. For South Africa to support Britain and the Empire during the war, the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force (SAOEF) was created by Prime Minister Botha and Jan Smuts in July 1915. Formed with volunteers from the UDF, the SAOEF would have the status of Imperial troops under British command, rather than independent South African units. As there was no formal link between the UDF and the SOEF, (as well as fighting as regular ‘British’ units) South African forces were not entitled to retain regimental colours awarded to them after the battle.

The SAOEF consisted of several arms of service:[59][60]

  • 1st South African Infantry Brigade. The brigade was commanded by Brigadier General H.T. Lukin and consisted of four regiments recruited from existing military units as well as amongst civilian volunteers. Regiments were raised in the four provinces of South Africa:
  • SA Heavy Artillery Brigade. On the Western Front, the brigade was armed with 6" Howitzers and was placed under command of the Royal Garrison Artillery, consisting of (April 1916):
    • 71st Siege Battery, RGA
    • 72nd Siege Battery, RGA
    • 73rd Siege Battery, RGA
    • 74th Siege Battery, RGA
  • SA Field Artillery
  • SA Horse (mounted rifles): ten battalions
  • SA Rifles (dismounted rifles): two battalions
  • Cape Corps: two infantry battalions and a labour battalion
  • Engineer, signals, supply and transport, medical, and veterinary units
  • South African Native Labour Corps

German East Africa Campaign (1916-1918)
Main article: East African campaign (World War I)

The East African Campaign was a series of battles and guerrilla actions which occurred in German East Africa, before spreading to areas within Portuguese Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia, British East Africa, the Uganda Protectorate and the Belgian Congo. Britain was keen to deny the Imperial German Navy surface raiders ports on the Indian Ocean coast, as well as denying a base where German land forces could conduct cross border raids into neighbouring British or Allied colonies. After a disastrous British Indian Army amphibious landing in November 1914 at Tanga, South Africa was requested by London to lead the campaign, defeat General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, and occupy German East Africa.[61] [62]

By early 1916, Jan Smuts had succeeded General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien as commander of British forces in East Africa and began replacing British officers with South Africans such as Brits and Van Deventer.[63] Smuts was keen to deploy large and fast sweeping operations that would encircle German forces and avoid high numbers of casualties, similar to actions Botha and Smuts conducted in South-West Africa. By insisting on an offensive immediately, however, Smuts underestimated the debilitating effect the jungle would have on military operations. Commanding a force of roughly 40,000 South African and Indian soldiers, Smuts’ offensives pushed Von Lettow-Vorbeck and 4,000 men into a slow and determined fighting withdrawal southward towards the interior of the colony. In May 1916, a force of 3,000 South Africans under Van Deventer threatened as major central railway after capturing the town of Kondoa Irangi. Due to the rainy season, the force became completely cut off as roads and bridges were swept away.[64] Left to scavenge for food locally, the fall in health and morale was considerable. By the end of June one-third of the troops were sick and only 1,000 out of 4,000 horses were fit as the rains, thick jungle and tropical diseases took hold.[5] [64]

South African BL 5.4 inch Howitzer crew, East Africa

Although offensives along the coastline had been significantly more successful, with the key port of Dar es Salaam falling by the end of September 1916, military operations for the interior became increasingly frustrated and hindered by disease.[65] In an environment where vehicles were of limited use, between June and September over 53,000 draught animals had died from illness, with most South African units losing half their number to disease and poor nutrition. By the end of 1916, Smuts was advocating that ill-suited European troops be replaced by Africans that could better deal with the harsh conditions. After just six months of the offensive, over 12,000 white South Africans were invalided home due to sickness and exhaustion. [66]

Smuts, with the campaign stalling around the Rufigi River, left his East African Command after being asked to join the Imperial War Cabinet in London. Although Smuts’ offensives had been successful, securing three-quarters of German East African territory and its entire infrastructure, Von Lettow-Vorbeck and his small force refused to surrender and continued to engage in a strategy that drew disproportionate amounts of Allied resources away from Europe. During a brief command under British General Reginald Hoskins, the exhausted and derailed campaign underwent mass reorganisation and reform. Conscious of the poor health of his men and significant supply problems, all offensives were delayed until after the heavy rains, medical services and transport were improved, lines of communication became better developed and more European soldiers were replaced with African soldiers, particularly the dramatically expanding King’s African Rifles.[67] Despite having achieved much, suspected intrigue from Smuts led to Hoskins being relieved of his command after only four months. On 23 April 1917, South African Jacob van Deventer assumed command of the Imperial force in East Africa. [66]

From July, Van Deventer undertook a series of pincer movements against German positions for control of water stores and food-producing areas. With a mostly Indian and African army by this time, a major battle took place in October at Mahiwa that saw over 2,000 Allied and 600 German casualties.[68] Although Van Deventer lost more men, Von Lettow-Vorbeck faced a far more serious situation as he could afford the casualties and had to abandon already dwindling ammunition, supplies and field guns. By November 1917, Von Lettow-Vorbeck had led his column of 300 European and 1,800 African soldiers in Portuguese Mozambique in search of food and supplies. During the final phases of the campaign Imperial forces totalled 52,000 men, although only 2,500 South Africans were part of this, mainly in support roles. After Van Deventer moved into Mozambique in pursuit in July 1918, Von Lettow-Vorbeck skilfully outmanoeuvred the South African and returned to German East Africa to conduct supply raids on the lightly defended Northern Rhodesia border. [69]

Two weeks after the armistice signed in Europe, on 25 November 1918 Von Lettow-Vorbeck finally surrendered at Abercorn near Lake Tanganyika after evading capture for over four years. His strategy of drawing Allied resources away from Europe into a colonial sideshow had been immensely successful.[70] Against a small force that at the most totalled 14,000, mostly colonial soldiers (Askaris), Britain had deployed 114,000 European, Indian and African men. 10,000 died during the campaign, mainly due to disease and over 100,000 African supplier carriers died of sickness and exhaustion.[71] Although South Africa did have territorial ambitions after playing a significant part in the campaign, most of German East Africa became a British administered mandate. [72]

Egypt Campaign (1916)
Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

In the summer of 1915, the Ottoman Empire persuaded the Grand Senussi Ahmed Sharif, who held lands in formerly Ottoman Libya, to invade British-occupied Egypt from the west and encourage mass insurrection in support of the Ottoman offensive against the Suez Canal in the east.[73] [74]

During December 1915, it was decided to deploy the 1st South African Brigade, which had been training in Britain since August, to Egypt to fight alongside Imperial forces against the Senussi due to the South African’s having recent desert experience.  British Imperial forces at first withdrew eastwards, before then defeating the Senussi in several engagements, including the Action of Agagia.[75] The South African Brigade helped to recapture territory along the coast as part of the Western Frontier Force of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. After the recapture of the final settlement of Sallum on the Libyan - Egyptian border on 14 March 1916, the brigade was then transferred back to the Western Front as part of the 9th (Scottish) Division. [60]

Western Front Campaign (1916–1918)
Main article: Western Front (World War I)
Troops of the 4th South African Regiment (South African Scottish) during a rest period at Blangy, France. 3 May, 1917

From April 1916 until the war in Europe ended on 11 November 1918, South Africa fought alongside other Allied nations at battles of the Somme in 1916; Arras, Ypres, and Menin in 1917; and Passchendaele, Messines, Mont Kemmel, and Cambrai in 1918. Two events of the campaign are still commemorated today and are a symbol of remembrance - the Battle of Delville Wood,[76] and the sinking of the troopship SS Mendi. Two South Africans, Private William Frederick Faulds and Lance Corporal William Henry Hewitt, would also go on to win the Victoria Cross - the Empire’s highest medal for gallantry. Attached to the British 9th (Scottish) Division, the South African 1st Infantry Brigade was deployed to France in mid-April 1916 in anticipation of the upcoming Somme Offensive. Occupying front line trenches throughout May, and then later in reserve, the Brigade reportedly gained a reputation for imitating Zulu war songs and dances when at the front.[5]

As the Somme Offensive declined into a war of attrition with enormous casualties on both sides, the Brigade was ordered to capture Delville Wood, just to the east of Longueval, on 14 July and hold it at all costs.[77] At dawn the following day, the 3,000 South African soldiers led by Lieutenant Colonel William Tanner successfully captured most of the wood and started to prepare defensive positions. As the wood formed a salient in the German front line, the Brigade could be fired on by German artillery from three sides and faced determined counter-attacks. Although there were frequent British attempts to relieve the pressure on the South Africans, stiff German resistance pushed them back.[78] It was only four days later on 19 July that the South African Brigade was finally relieved and taken off the line. Of the 3,000 men that went into Delville Wood, less than 800 men were able to report for duty the following day. 750 South Africans had died during the four day battle, with 1,500 wounded, captured or missing. Suffering constant artillery fire and an eventual two-thirds casualty rate, South Africa won great respect for their courage and holding their objective.[79] [80] In 1920, South Africa purchased the land from France and erected a National Memorial in remembrance, a monument that is still cared for today. [81]

After the Brigade was effectively reconstituted with the arrival of nearly 3,000 recruits, it continued to be involved in highly intensive operations with high casualty rates. The attacks on the Butte de Warlencourt in October 1916 incurred a further 1,150 casualties, and a further 700 at Arras in April 1917. After these attacks, which resulted in only small territorial gain, it was rumoured the brigade began to refer to themselves as ‘suicide Springboks’.[5] At the Battle of Passchendaele in September 1917, the South African brigade suffered over 1,000 casualties out of an original 2,600 men, although managed to secure their objectives. As the war entered its final year, in early 1918 the Brigade was tasked with holding a defensive position at Gouzeaucourt, near Cambrai, in anticipation of the German spring offensive. Numbering by this point at roughly half its normal complement of 3,000 men, the South African line was forced to withdraw after their strong points were overwhelmed after the German attack on 21 March. Suffering over 900 casualties, the surviving 700 men fought their way north to escape encirclement. By the armistice in November 1918, South African battalions were reduced to only 300 men in each.[82]

King George inspecting NCO' s of the South African Native Labour Corps at Abbeville, 10 July 1917.

From October 1916, the first continents of the South African Native Labour Corps began arriving in France under the command of Colonel S.A.M Pitchard. Along with other general labour forces, tasks revolved around the construction and maintenance of infrastructure related to the war effort.[1] Employed in French dockyards, railways, quarries and logging camps, the Native Labour Corps often won great praise, even from the Commander in Chief of the British Army Douglas Haigh, for their vital contributions to the war effort. The white officers and NCO rigorously enforced racial segregation during their time in France, minimising European and African contact by operating closed compounds. As dissatisfaction among black Africans grew, a disturbance in July 1917 led to 13 being shot dead by their white officers. British officers increasingly called for black South Africans in France be given more liberties and be allowed more freedoms. [12] On 21 February 1917, a great loss struck South Africa when the troopship SS Mendi was accidentally rammed in thick fog just off the South Coast of England.[1] Transporting 823 men of the Native Labour Corps, 616 South Africans were killed when the cargo ship SS Darro pierced Mendi’s starboard quarter when travelling at dangerously high speed through the English Channel.[83] Back in South Africa, the House of Assembly passed a motion of sympathy to the relatives of the dead.[84]

In January 1918, Botha unexpectedly announced that the SANLC would be withdrawn from France and disbanded. Officially, the Government claimed that the Corps was withdrawn due to the threat of enemy submarines to troopships. It is presumed however that having black Africans mixing freely in Europe was becoming too politically embarrassing and risked fomenting African nationalism.[85] Two Cape Corps battalions and the Cape Auxiliary Horse Transport, recruited in June 1916, continued to provide labour in France until late 1919.

For their service in Europe, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission records 1,304 deaths for the South African Native Labour Corps. Along with the sinking of the SS Mendi, over 300 died from medical reasons in France, most likely tuberculosis.[86]

Palestine Campaign (1918)
Main article: Battle of Nablus (1918)

On 19 April 1918, the first battalion of the South African Cape Corps, which had fought in East Africa, disembarked at Port Suez in Egypt. Assigned to the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) under General Sir Edmund Allenby, the Corps was originally designated light duties behind the lines, such as a prisoner of war escort, due to South African racial policies. After appeals to Allenby by the Battalion commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Hoy, who requested front line service and highlighted the previous action in East Africa, Allenby accepted the proposal.[87]

By the end of June, the Corps had joined the British and Indian 160th Brigade that had deployed forward positions north of Jerusalem and alongside the Jordan River. The Spanish Flu epidemic began to spread during this time and the Battalion was reduced to around 70% of its normal complement. In late September, the Cape Corps advanced against Turkish positions northeast of Jerusalem that had become slightly weakened due to disease, desertion, and the effects of Allied artillery. Taking Dhib Hill, Chevron Hill, Crest Hill, End Hill and Square Hill, the Battalion was tasked with protecting the right flank of the 160th Brigade from Turkish counterattacks. At Square Hill, the Corps took their objectives for the loss of one dead and one wounded, over 180 Turkish soldiers and one field was captured. As Turkish troops retreated, they regrouped around and defended Kh Jibeit Hill. Although the position could have been easily flanked and isolated, the Battalion was ordered to capture it on 20 September 1918. Intelligence had suggested that, although defended, enemy strength would not be considerable and a strong artillery bombardment of five minutes would suffice.[88][89]

The attack however did not go to plan from the beginning. The artillery started late and lacked accuracy, giving the Turks valuable time to improve their defences and prepare for an assault. The order to attack, after being delayed, was finally given at 05:00 with the result that the objective would be reached in daylight. Suffering high casualties from machine-gun fire, the attack was broken and dissipated with all officers being killed or wounded. Withdrawing back to Square Hill, the Battalion could only count 360 men fit for duty. 51 were killed, 101 wounded, and one soldier was taken prisoner.[90]

After the offensive against the Ottomans, the Cape Corps was later withdrawn to Alexandria where it suppressed an Egyptian Nationalist uprising,[91] until returning to South African in September 1919. For their actions, a Military Cross, and Distinguished Conduct Medal were awarded, along with five soldiers being Mentioned in Despatches. A Square Hill Memorial stands today in Kimberley, Northern Cape. [90]

Disbandment

By the end of 1919, the units of the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force had returned to South Africa and were demobilised at camps at Cape Town, Durban, Pretoria and Potchefstroom. A Demobilisation Board and over 50 ‘Returned Soldiers Committees’ were established to help reintegrate white servicemen back into civilian life.[92] Many returned to jobs that had been reserved by their employers, whilst others joined the Allied Expeditionary Force in Russia that was fighting the Bolsheviks, and some became part of the radical mineworkers’ movement that led the Rand Rebellion in 1922.[24] Unfortunately due to South African racial policies, employment support and official gratitude was never given to the Coloured, Black and Indian racial groups that had served. [93]

South African Aviation Corps (SAAC)
Main article: History of the South African Air Force
Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor VC, South Africa's highest-scoring fighter ace during the First World War

As early as 1912, the Union Defence Force established a flying school at Alexandersfontein, nearly Kimberley, to train pilots for the proposed South African Aviation Corps (SAAC). South Africa’s first military pilot was Kenneth van der Spuy who qualified on 2 June 1914, with four others following him a few days later.[94]

Soon after the outbreak of war, the need for airpower in Southern Africa became acute after German reconnaissance aircraft were routinely spotted and advancing South African columns being attacked by hostile aircraft.[95] On 29 January 1915, the South African Aviation Corp at long last became operational and was initially equipped with twelve steel-framed French Henri Farman F-27 aircraft. Concerns over the use of wooden aircraft from Britain and the USA had dictated the need to buy French. due to the problems of wooden British planes in the hot dry climate of Southern Africa. [96]

Airfield construction was soon undertaken at Walvis Bay (then a South African enclave in German South-West Africa), and recruitment expanded to 75 prospective pilots.[97] By the end of June the SAAC possessed six Henri Farman's and two British B.E.2c’s along with three extra Royal Flying Corps pilots. From their first operational airfield at Karabib in South West Africa, the SAAC flew reconnaissance, leaflet dropping and improvised bombing missions against German forces. [98][96]

Soon after the South West African campaign had ended, an independent squadron of mixed British and South African pilots was stood up and deployed to support operations in East Africa. No. 26 Squadron (also known as ‘The South African Squadron"), had eight aircraft of an F-27 and B.E2c combination transported and later flown to a forward airfield inside German East Africa at Mbuyuni.[98] The independent squadron flew close reconnaissance and observer missions throughout the campaign until February 1918 when it was withdrawn back to Cape Town and disbanded on 8 July 1918. [99][100]

Although the SAAC and the No. 26 Squadron was engaged in German South West Africa and East Africa, thousands of South Africans travelled to the United Kingdom and volunteered for service within the Royal Flying Corps directly. Over 3,000 men flew with the RFC in Europe, suffering 260 active-duty fatalities. Forty-six pilots became fighter aces, with Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor being the British Empire’s fourth most successful ace with 54 confirmed victories.[101][102]

Between 1918 and 1920, South African pilots even took part in the Russian Civil War in Eastern Europe. In June 1918 the North Russian Expeditionary Force, which had a Royal Air Force detachment (previously the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service), disembarked at Murmansk. No. 47 Squadron RAF was commanded by South African Samuel Kinkead, and had a number of other South African pilots such as Kenneth van der Spuy and Pierre van Ryneveld.[98]

South African Navy
Main article: South African Navy

During the First World War, South Africa could offer a limited, but strategically important, naval contribution despite not operating any vessels of its own.

Map showing the course of SMS Wolf, a German armed merchant raider that took the war to the South African coast.

Under Royal Navy jurisdiction, the RNVR (SA) manned a small number of converted vessels that patrolled the South African coast against German surface raiders, helping in local mine clearance in response to the operations of the highly successful raider SMS Wolf in 1917, and defending shore establishments. The heaviest loss of life caused by Wolf was the sinking of the Spanish mail steamer SS Carlos de Eizaguirre which struck a mine just off Cape Town on 26 May 1917, with 134 passengers and crew killed and 25 survivors.[103][104]

A total of 412 South Africans served in the RNVR (SA) during the war, with 164 members volunteering for the  Royal Navy itself. Many would see service in British and Mediterranean waters, whilst others would participate in the land campaigns of South West Africa and East Africa against German forces.[105]

In conjunction with the rather limited manpower contributions, South Africa offered to the Allies the crucial strategic position of controlling the Cape Sea Route - a key chokepoint in maritime trade and sea control.

Simon’s Town Naval Base in the Cape was the principal operating base for the "Cape of Good Hope Station and West Africa Station" from where German trade could be intercepted and commerce raiders attacked. Similarly, Cape Town and Durban were also equally important to the war effort. As rest stops, refuelling stations, and offering repair facilities, the Imperial sea lanes to the Middle East, the British Raj, and Australasia were kept open and secure.

With the conclusion of hostilities in 1918, members of the RNVR(SA) were demobilised and all Admiralty requisitioned South African ships were promptly returned to their owners.[106][107]

South African contributions and casualties
Delville Wood South African National Memorial

With a population of roughly 6 million, between 1914 - 1918, over 250,000 South Africans of all races voluntarily served their country. Thousands more served in the British Army directly, with over 3,000 joining the British Royal Flying Corps and over 100 volunteering for the Royal Navy.[108] It is likely that around 50% of white men of military age served during the war. More than 146,000 whites, 83,000 black Africans and 2,500 Coloureds and Asians also served in either German South-West Africa, East Africa, the Middle East, or on the Western Front in Europe. Suffering roughly 19,000 casualties, over 7,000 South Africans were killed, and nearly 12,000 were wounded during the course of the war.[109] Eight South Africans won the Victoria Cross for gallantry, the Empire’s highest and prestigious military medal. The Battle of Delville Wood and the sinking of the SS Mendi being the greatest single incidents of loss of life.

The assistance that South Africa gave the British Empire was significant. Two German African colonies were occupied, either by South Africa alone or with significant South African assistance. Manpower, from all races, helped Allied operations not just on the Western Front and Africa, but also in the Middle East against the Ottoman Empire. South Africa’s ports and harbours on the Home Front were a crucial strategic asset when conducting a war on a global scale. Providing important rest and refuelling stations, the Royal Navy could ensure vital sea lane connections to the British Raj, and the Far East stayed open.

Economically, South Africa supplied two-thirds of gold production in the British Empire, with most of the remainder coming from Australia. At the start of the war, Bank of England officials in London worked with South Africa to block gold shipments to Germany, and force mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the United States and neutral countries.[110]

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