RAF Bomber Command aircrew of World War II

A flight of North American Harvard IIAs from No 20 Service Flying Training School being flown in formation by RAF trainee pilots participating in the Commonwealth Joint Air Training Programme at Cranborne, near Salisbury, Rhodesia

The risk of Luftwaffe attack on training bases in Great Britain coupled with the urgent need for larger numbers of well trained aircrew than the pre-war systems could produce brought about the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), often referred to as simply "The Plan".[4] It was a massive, joint military aircrew training program created by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, during the Second World War.[5] BCATP remains as one of the single largest aviation training programs in history and was responsible for training nearly half the pilots, navigators, bomb aimers, air gunners, wireless operators and flight engineers who served with the Royal Air Force (RAF), Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA), Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) during the war.[6] Under a parallel agreement, the Joint Air Training Scheme in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia operated training bases for aircrew. Multiple training schools also operated in the United States where bomber pilots, navigators and bomb aimers were trained.[7]

On completion of basic military training aircrew candidates would wear a white flash on the front of their service issue "side caps" denoting their "aircrew under training" status. No matter where they originated in Britain or the Commonwealth they could be shipped to the next available training course in any of those nations where pilots were trained to fly at "Elementary Flying Training Schools" and the other aircrew trades attended appropriate trade schools such as "Air Navigation Schools" or "Bombing and Gunnery Schools".[8][9] Following completion of training at a graduation ceremony aircrew were presented with their aircrew brevet (the correct term is flying badge) and either handed their sergeant's stripes or commissioned as officers.[10]

30 Operational Training Unit Wellingtons in September 1943

The next phase of training was usually in Britain at one of the Operational Training Units (OTU).[11] Aircrew memoirs repeatedly mention arriving at an OTU in large groups of mixed aircrew trades all assigned to the next course and being left to mingle in a large hall to form crews.[12][13] The process of forming a crew generally followed the pattern of one or two men who knew each other from training schools deciding to fly together then looking for other members from different trades to team up with.[14][15] Most crews were formed in this manner.[16][17] Instructors were usually experienced aircrew being "rested" after completing an operational tour and were tasked to lead the airmen for 5 or 6 weeks on night flying, navigation, bombing, cross country, all-weather and air gunnery/fighter affiliation practice operations in the types of aircraft they were likely to fly operationally. The process was hazardous and crashes due to inexperience cost over 8,000 casualties, including instructors who had joined a crew needing particular support or guidance.[18][19]

In the first half of the war completion of training at an OTU would mean each crew transferring to an operational squadron and beginning their operational tour. Assignment to a squadron was simply a process of making good recent losses and a squadron which had lost three or four crews in the previous week would expect the "feeder" OTUs to have replacement crews (known as freshmen or sprog crews)[12] ready in the system to cover the losses. This effectively meant that any crew could go to any squadron within Bomber Command. During 1942 particularly, any maximum effort attacks such as the 1,000 bomber attacks on Cologne on the night 30–31 May 1942 and Essen on 1–2 June 1942 required more aircraft and crews than Bomber Command had available in its operational squadrons so crews at OTUs who were near the end of their courses and were rated as efficient, participated in the operation.[20][21]

During mid-wartime many crews trained using "tired" Vickers Wellington bombers,[22] at OTUs and then had to convert,[23] learning to fly the four-engined Stirling, Halifax or Lancasters which they would fly after joining their squadrons. This process occurred at Heavy Conversion Units.[24] During this time each crew would be joined by a flight engineer,[25] and an additional air gunner to man the mid-upper gun turret although sometimes the gunners would agree to exchange turrets.[26][27]

Bomber Command aircrew "trades" flying operationally in the early stages of the war were:[29][30]

Observer flying badge

Pilot – A qualified pilot flew the aircraft and in the Royal Air Force was usually the captain (function not rank) of the crew, making the key operational decisions even if his rank was junior to other members of the crew.[31] The pilot was often a commissioned officer but he could hold any rank from Sergeant up to Group Captain. Officers of higher rank did occasionally fly operationally but were discouraged from doing so due to concerns of them being taken prisoner. Captains were often informally referred to by their crews as Skipper or Skip. A pilot wore the traditional double-winged flying badge "pilot's wings" on his tunic above his left breast pocket.[32]

Second pilot – A fully qualified, usually less experienced pilot who assisted the captain, who might assist the Observer and was usually a sergeant or commissioned officer. A second pilot wore the traditional double-winged flying badge pilot's “wings” on his tunic above his left breast pocket.

Observer – The role was to navigate the bomber to the target using astral navigation, map reading, and wireless position fixes and then to release the payload onto the target. The observer was often a commissioned officer but could hold any rank from Aircraftman 2nd Class (until 27 May 1940) up to Group Captain. An observer wore a single-winged flying badge with a wreath containing the letter "O" on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation. If the aircraft was operated by a Polish or French manned squadron the observer was often the senior ranking crew member aboard and was captain (function not rank) of the crew.[32]

Air Gunner flying badge

Wireless operator/air gunner – The role was to send and receive wireless signals during the flight, assisting the observer with triangulation "fixes" to aid navigation when necessary and if attacked to use the defensive machine gun armament of the bomber to fight off enemy aircraft. In the early stages of the war usually an enlisted man, he could hold any rank from aircraftman 2nd class (until 27 May 1940)[33] upwards but most often a sergeant. A wireless operator/air gunner wore a single-winged aircrew flying badge with a wreath containing the letters AG or S on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation and a cloth arm patch featuring lightning bolts.[31]

RAF No. 218 Squadron Fairey Battles over France, c. 1940

Air gunner – The role was to defend the bomber using the aircraft's machine guns. In the early stages of the war usually an enlisted man, he could hold any rank from aircraftman 2nd class (until June 1940) upwards but most often a sergeant although some air gunners were commissioned officers of which a small number were considerably older than most aircrew and even veterans of World War I. An air gunner wore a single-winged aircrew flying badge with a wreath containing the letters AG on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation and very early in the war might also have the brass "winged bullet" qualification badge of a pre-war air gunner on his sleeve.[32][34][35]

Typically when flying operationally the following aircraft were crewed as below:

Fairey Battle single-engined light bomber – most often used in daylight operations in a ground support role and crewed by three airmen, a pilot, an observer and a wireless operator/air gunner. The battle-equipped squadrons were operational in the Battle of France and suffered catastrophic losses when they were intercepted by Luftwaffe fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the Messerschmitt Bf 110.[36]

Blenheim Mark IV of 21 Squadron at Bodney in August 1941

Bristol Blenheim twin-engined light bomber – used in daylight or night operations and usually crewed by three airmen, a pilot, an observer and a wireless operator/air gunner in a dorsal power-operated gun turret. The Blenheim-equipped squadrons were in the front line from the day Britain declared war on Germany in a wide variety of roles but usually as bombers or maritime reconnaissance/attack aircraft and like the Fairey Battle it was extremely vulnerable to attacks by single German fighters let alone a determined attack by a flight of fighters co-operating.[36]

Handley Page Hampden

Handley Page Hampden twin-engined medium bomber – used normally in night operations and usually crewed by three or four airmen, a pilot, a second pilot or observer, a wireless operator/air gunner and an air gunner. The Hampden-equipped squadrons were operational from the day Britain declared war on Germany initially dropping propaganda leaflets but then usually in night time bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines) in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours.[37]

The Merlin-engined Wellington Mark II. This aircraft belongs to No. 104 Sqn.

Vickers Wellington twin-engined medium bomber – used normally in night operations and crewed by five or six airmen, a pilot, (a second pilot in the earlier years), an observer, two wireless operator/air gunners and an air gunner in a power-operated rear-mounted turret in the tail section of the aircraft, the "rear gunner".[31] The aircraft was tremendously strong and could withstand heavy battle damage and still return home, it was affectionately known as the "Wimpey" by its crews. The Wellington-equipped squadrons were operational from the day Britain declared war on Germany initially dropping propaganda leaflets but then usually in night time bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines) in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours. Daylight bombing operations attempted by formations of Vickers Wellingtons in December 1939 over Northern Germany resulted in terrible losses and were not repeated for that reason once it was appreciated that even a tight formation of bombers could not defend itself against German fighters.[38]

Whitley Mark V

Armstrong Whitworth Whitley twin-engined medium bomber – used normally in night operations and usually crewed by five airmen, a pilot, a second pilot, an observer, a wireless operator/air gunner and an air gunner in a power-operated rear-mounted turret in the tail section of the aircraft, the "rear gunner". The Whitley-equipped squadrons were operational from the day Britain declared war on Germany initially dropping propaganda leaflets but then usually in nighttime bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours. The aircraft was reaching the end of its operational life and was phased out of night bombing operations by 1942.[39]

Lancaster pilot at the controls, left, flight engineer at right

Lancaster wireless operator on duty.

The introduction of heavy bombers with four engines brought the necessity of engine management and a new trade entered service with these aircraft.[41][42][43] "Flight engineer" chosen specifically for mechanical aptitude. The flight engineer sat beside the pilot and assisted him particularly at takeoff, during the flight monitoring the engines and vitally the fuel efficiency, pumping fuel between the tanks as required.[31] It was not unusual for these airmen to be a little older than their colleagues and often had prior mechanical experience. The flight engineer was usually a sergeant; promotion was very slow indeed. A flight engineer wore a single-winged aircrew brevet (actually a flying badge - the use of the word “Brevet” actually describes a certificate in French) with a wreath containing the letter 'E' on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation. During the initial operational service of four-engined bombers second pilots were carried until sufficient flight engineers had been trained.[44]

The original trade of observer began to be phased out although those airmen who had qualified in that role early in the war continued to wear their Observer flying badge with great pride. It was replaced by two new trades.

Navigator at work. F/O Phil Ingleby of 619 Squadron, killed on his second tour in August 1944

The bomb aimer on a Lancaster B Mark I at his position in the nose

"Navigator" who worked at his desk behind a curtain and instructed the pilot on route and airspeed required throughout the operation in order to arrive on target within the expected time period in company with the other aircraft due to attack, he operated any radar navigational aids carried aboard. Concentration was certainly needed in flight navigation of the aircraft. Flight navigation was an inexact science and a lapse of concentration could be fatal.[45] A navigator wore a single-winged aircrew flying badge with a wreath containing the letter N on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation. At this stage of the war pilots and navigators were often commissioned on completion of training.[31][46]

"Air bomber" more normally called the "bomb aimer". This crewman manned the nose-mounted gun turret (usually twin .303 machine guns) during the operation and provided assistance to the navigator[31] only to crawl into the bomb aimer's compartment in the lower section of the nose of the aircraft to operate the bomb sight and press the button to release the bomb load onto the target at the necessary time. During the "bombing run" when the bombs were about to be released he would instruct the pilot on minute adjustments to course in order to release the bombs as accurately as possible, the release of the bomb load activated a flash photograph to record the target below. The Bomb Aimer was usually often a commissioned officer, he wore a single-winged aircrew flying badge with a wreath containing the letter B on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation.[47]

Mid Upper Gunner with twin .303 Brownings, February 1943

Gunner in the Nash & Thompson FN20 tail turret

To protect the heavy bombers from a German Luftwaffe night fighter force which had evolved at great speed to become extremely effective, most of the new heavy bombers had three power-operated gun turrets usually sited in the nose, dorsal (mid-upper) and rear (tail) positions requiring an additional gunner. The traditional tail end Charlie "Rear Gunner" continued in place facing rearwards with his quad mounted .303 Browning machine guns while an additional air gunner, known as the "Mid Upper" gunner climbed up into a sling harness to man a power-operated dorsal turret on the top of the fuselage. On the Halifax this turret was armed with four .303 Browning machine guns and on the Lancaster it had twin .303 machine guns.[48] Within crews some gunners preferred one turret or the other would usually fly in that, in other crews the gunners might swap turrets regularly.

In the middle years of the war it became more usual to train airmen specifically as "wireless operators" and no longer add air gunnery training to their instruction. These men graduated training schools to earning a single-winged aircrew flying badge over a wreath containing the letters S on his tunic, above his left breast pocket denoting his trade specialisation as "signaller".[49]

As the war progressed it became common for airmen to "team up" and form the crew with whom they would fly "operations" while still at their "Operational Training Unit" before being posted to their squadrons. On joining the squadron their pilot would often be assigned to fly one or two operational missions as second pilot with an experienced crew in order to gain operational experience before taking his own crew into action. In this situation he would be referred to as a Second Dickie (second pilot).[50][51][52]

Handley Page Halifax B.III

Short Stirling being bombed up

Typically when flying operationally the following aircraft carried seven aircrew while operating in the main force heavy bomber role, the exception being the de Havilland Mosquito:

Handley Page Halifax four-engined heavy bomber used primarily in night operations and usually crewed by seven airmen, a pilot, a flight engineer, a navigator, a bomb aimer, a wireless operator/air gunner, a mid-upper gunner and a rear gunner. Occasionally a second pilot might be aboard. Utilised primarily in night time bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines) in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours. In late 1944 and 1945 daylight operations were possible as the Luftwaffe's ability to attack large formations was reduced and daylight "ops" (operations or missions) were flown.[53][54][55]

Avro Lancaster B I PA474 of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight. This aircraft carries the deepened bomb aimer's blister (Mod. 780), and the later paddle-bladed propellers.

Short Stirling four-engined heavy bomber used primarily in night operations and usually crewed by seven airmen, a pilot, a flight engineer, a navigator, a bomb aimer, a wireless operator/air gunner, a mid-upper gunner and a rear gunner. Occasionally a second pilot might be aboard. Utilised primarily in night time bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines) in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours. The Short Stirling was withdrawn from service with RAF Bomber Command in 1944 being used mainly thereafter for SOE support missions,[56] mine laying and towing gliders of airborne troops.[57][58][59]

Avro Lancaster four-engined heavy bomber used normally in night operations and usually crewed by seven airmen, a pilot, a flight engineer, a navigator, a bomb aimer, a wireless operator/air gunner, a mid-upper gunner and a rear gunner. Occasionally a second pilot might be aboard. Late in the war a "Set Operator" flew within crews of a sma a pilot, a flight engineer, a navigator, a bomb aimer, a wireless operator/air gunner, a mid-upper gunner and a rear gull number of specialised squadrons who operated additional technical equipment. Utilised primarily in night time bombing attacks or mine-laying (sea mines) in known enemy shipping or U-boat transit routes or even in enemy harbours. In late 1944 and 1945 daylight operations were possible as the Luftwaffe's ability to attack large formations was reduced and daylight "ops" were flown.[60]

de Havilland Mosquito

de Havilland Mosquito the fast twin-engined aircraft was used by RAF Bomber Command primarily in the role of Pathfinder Force marker after the formation of No. 8 Group RAF and later by the specialised Light Night Striking Force. The aircraft was always crewed by a pilot and a navigator and was a multi-role combat aircraft suited for high speed low level marking, precision bombing, night fighting, photo reconnaissance and night-intruding to strike at Luftwaffe airfield runways to try to reduce night fighter activity.[61]

During the late period of World War II some bombers carrying out special duties began to carry additional specialised equipment for navigational and similar purposes. The equipment was more complex than that normally carried, and a specially trained "set operator" was carried to operate it and interpret the results. His equipment was usually referred to as "the gubbins", and he was regarded as a specially intelligent person, a "Gen kiddie".[62]

Halifax bomber in flight.

During the day crews would briefly "air test" the aircraft assigned to them to ensure that it was working properly and that their personal equipment, oxygen supply, heated flight suits and machine guns were all ready.[103] Ground crew stood ready to correct any problems identified once the bomber landed. Crews who had survived several "ops" would often have a particular aircraft assigned to them whenever possible, that aircraft would have its own ground crew (known congenially as "erks") and if "their" aircraft was "D for Dog", "G for George", "F for Freddy", "K for King" or whatever, they would be protective of "the old girl" and would have feelings of considerable disquiet if their aircraft was unserviceable after the air test, meaning that they had to take a spare aircraft.[104][105]

Navigators at briefing.

As soon as the ground crew commenced preparing the aircraft, they would be able to estimate what the night's operation was likely to be based on the payload of bombs (or sea mines) coupled with the fuel load to be pumped into the wing tanks.[106] The bombers would be carefully "bombed up" and "fuelled up", ammunition was loaded and all jobs checked and double checked by the NCO in charge, the ground crew took enormous pride in their work and laboured in sometimes terrible weather conditions to ensure that maintenance was always completed to the highest possible standards.[107][108]

Halifax bomber being bombed up.

Briefings usually commenced during the afternoons, and for reasons of security the bomber base would be closed down to all but the most necessary traffic in or out to reduce to a minimum any leakage of intelligence which might help to forewarn the enemy,[109] even public telephones were padlocked.[110] With RAF Police guarding the doors,[111] briefings commenced in large rooms with the airmen sitting in rows of seats/benches with trestle tables facing a low stage, behind which were large curtains similar to a cinema.

Lancaster bomb bay with 14 x 1,000lb MC high explosive bombs bound for Stettin in 1944

Typically the primary briefing was provided by the "C.O." (commanding officer) accompanied by his flight commanders, met officer (meteorologist), "spy" (intelligence officer) and attended by pilots and navigators.[103][112][113] The curtain would be drawn back to reveal a huge map of Europe with a line of coloured tape running from the position the bomber base in England out across the English Channel to a point from which a "dog leg" tape ran to the target and then back to base.[114][115] The dog leg was introduced to give the impression that a different target was the destination in the hope that the Luftwaffe night fighter controllers would concentrate their forces in the wrong location.[116]

Aircrew briefing.

Memoirs frequently describe the groans from the assembled airmen if the tapes arrived at a point in Happy Valley,[117] (the industrial Ruhr Valley) or "the Big City" Berlin,[118] where anti-aircraft defences, search light batteries and night-fighters would usually cause substantial casualties. Navigators took many notes on flight times, positions for course changes and with their pilots and bomb aimers would mark up their charts and maps adding notations for wind speeds and directions, the time the attack was expected to commence and locations of known heavy anti-aircraft batteries and other pertinent information.[119] Cross hatched areas of red celluloid covered sections of the map indicating known flak positions and green celluloid indicating searchlight batteries.[111]

Aircrew about to be ferried out to their aircraft.

Often it was practice for other aircrew trades such as bomb aimers, wireless operators, flight engineers and air gunners would join the assembled airmen later for the general briefing after completion of the Navigation briefing. The format of the briefing would be similar to the main briefing but with less navigational detail. After briefings had been completed aircrew would be permitted free time to prepare themselves, to write "just in case I don't get back" letters to parents, wives and children and to relax or sleep if they were able before their meal which was often referred to as "last supper".[109][120][121]

Aircrew in their flying suits.

As the time approached crews collected their parachutes and Mae West life preservers from the Parachute Section,[122] and "suited up" in the "crew room" or locker room climbing into their flying suits ensuring that everything was comfortable ready for a flight which could be ten or twelve hours long,[123] memoirs mention that lucky charms were checked and double checked, some men were quieter while others were noisy and putting a brave face on to cover their uncertainty.[124] Airmen had to remove all personal effects from their pockets in case of capture in which event the intelligence value might

Halifax crew posing beside their bomber.

assist an enemy interrogator, bus tickets, cinema tickets and cash were all forbidden.[125] They made ready to climb aboard canvas topped trucks to be driven out by WAAFs to where their aircraft waited dispersed around the edge of the airfield's perimeter track.[126] On arrival the crew would check their aircraft over again before the pilot and flight engineer started the engines to "run them up",[127][128] following which he as captain of the crew, signed the ground crew chief's Form 700 on a clip board accepting responsibility for a fully serviceable bomber.[116]

Experienced aircrew knew flying conditions with regards to toilet breaks could be uncomfortable, especially when flying from 10,000 to 20,000 feet, when oxygen becomes sparse.[129] The toilet facilities on a plane could be anything from a bottle to urinate in, to an Elsan. An Elsan was generally hated by the crew and the ground staff who had to clean it.[129] Pre-flight lavatory relief was both physically and psychologically encouraged by the prospect of a long flight ahead.[129] During the war, the allied aircrews developed the superstition of "wheel pissing." The wheel pissing took place prior to any mission.[129] The crew would urinate on the tail wheel prior to each mission.[129] Many believed wheel pissing brought luck before the appropriate time they climbed aboard and took their positions ready for take off.[129][130] Most sorties were nighttime attacks and commenced with crews taking off at dusk or into the evening from bases in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire or Cambridgeshire.[131]

Lancaster taxiing out to take off.

Lancaster taking off in the dusk.

Signalled in the darkness by an arrangement similar to traffic lights,[132] the crew awaited their turn to take off, wireless traffic was kept to an absolute minimum to avoid alerting the German wireless listening services.[133][134] If it was to be a distant target the aircraft fuel tanks might be topped-up by a fuel bowser immediately before taking off.[135] Each crew would taxi out to the runway in its pre-assigned order with the pilot checking over the intercom with each of his crew in turn that they were well and everything was working before they were signalled to take off,[136] and with the flight engineer standing beside the pilot to help manage the throttles they would go to full power and hope to pick up sufficient speed to get about 25 tons of bomber into the air before the end of the runway. A tyre blow out, a wheel running off the runway into soft grass or an engine failure at this point would mean disaster as the 2,000 gallons (up 8 tons) of aviation fuel, approximately 5 tons of bombs (high explosive and incendiary) and multiple thousands of rounds of ammunition crashed at over 130 miles per hour.[137] A crash at this stage usually killed all aboard.[138][139][140] Bombers usually took off with about 60 second intervals between them. The pilot would slowly climb to the designated height and head for the group's assembly point near the coast.[141] Once airborne every airman had to hope that his oxygen mask and supply functioned properly when it was switched on at 5,000 feet and did not suffer from icing in the frigid temperatures at high altitude; their electrically heated flying suits, boots and gloves were completely necessary to avoid frostbite throughout the year.[142]

Lancaster bombers heading towards their target.

Bombers operating from bases north of the River Humber usually crossed the English coast at Flamborough Head or Spurn Point and those from bases to the south of there would cross at Cromer.[143] On the outward-trip it was normal for crews to mention over the intercom any landmarks that they observed to assist the navigator and once over the North Sea the air gunners would be cleared to test their guns firing off brief bursts.[144] The heavy bombers flew as a bomber stream and banking on safety in numbers flew as a mass on their course.[145] Generally the first part of the flight was quiet, and it was not until the pilot or navigator announced "enemy coast ahead" over the intercom that a greater expectation of trouble was registered. The Dutch, Belgian or French coastline was often where flak ships (barges or ships armed with anti-aircraft guns) opened fire on the bombers.[146][147] From that point onwards bombers crews were aware that highly efficient Luftwaffe night fighters crews would be stalking them, some operating based on their own on-board radar, others working on directions from chains of radar stations.[148] The navigator would be taking readings from the stars and using any available wireless positioning assistance or reports of rivers or bridges below, to ensure that they were on course and on time constantly adding to his charts the positions reported by his crew of other bombers being shot down around them.[149][150] The bomb aimer manning the nose gun turret, the mid-upper gunner and the rear gunner would all be straining their eyes into the night sky hoping to see a night fighter approaching before it was able to open fire, or to see another bomber in time to take avoiding action before a collision occurred. Depending on the course to the target the bombers might overfly a number of belts of anti-aircraft artillery and search lights, radar assemblies and listening positions attracting barrages of fire and would be persistently pursued harried and attacked by night-fighters.[151] The Ruhr Valley was about 35 minutes flying time from the Dutch coast and here the first bombers in the stream would be met with intense anti-aircraft fire and extremely efficient searchlights working closely together.[152]

A Lancaster within the bomber stream dropping window – the crescent-shaped white cloud on the left of the picture

An often successful tactic to evade a determined night fighter pilot or after being caught by a searchlight(s)[153] was to "corkscrew",[154] a high speed spiral carried out while diving several thousand feet pulling high G-force sufficient to tear the wings off a fighter.[155][156]

When possible RAF Bomber Command would arrange a diversionary attack which was known as a "spoof raid", using a small secondary force, often aircraft from Operational Training Units, in an attempt to confuse the enemy night fighter controllers and draw the Luftwaffe night fighters of the Kammhuber line sufficiently far away from the main bomber stream that they would have expended so much fuel before the deception was identified that they would have to land to refuel and may be unable to intercept the main force.[157] A radar countermeasure comprising millions of small strips of aluminium foil known as "window",[158][159] was released along the inbound route; this effectively blinded the German radar.[160][161]

Photo taken during an attack on Essen.

A Lancaster receives a direct hit and disintegrates.

Upon arrival in the TA (Target Area), usually in the middle of a barrage of heavy anti-aircraft fire, avoiding the glare of searchlights trying to latch onto a bomber and illuminate it for the flak gunners while dodging night fighters, crews were expected to "stooge around",[162] (fly circuits) around the target and await radio instructions from the "Master Bomber",[163] based on the different coloured marker flares or target indicators dropped onto/over the target at low level by the Pathfinder Force. Once satisfied with the accuracy of one or more of the "markers", he would give the order to start the attack based on a particular marker,[164] and as the attack took place he would instruct bombers approaching to adjust their aim if the bombs were not landing as he required.[165] A particular danger was being "coned" (illuminated by multiple search lights) and blinded, to become the target of concentrated anti-aircraft fire.[109][166][167] Bombers would then approach at a pre-arranged height, the pilot taking instructions from his bomb aimer who would have sighted on the marker, the bomb aimer issuing frequent instructions such as "left, left, left a bit, steady ... steady ... steady ... hold that, hold that.." and then "bombs gone" after he released the payload and the bomber lurched upwards several hundred feet,[168] relieved of the 5–9 tons of bombs.[169]

Battle damaged Halifax which returned.

There would be a huge photo-flash as the bombing target photo was taken to show lighting up the ground below and the falling bombs.[170] This was a highly dangerous period of time as the bomber had had to fly straight and level to bomb, making itself a perfect target for gunners on the ground or enemy fighter pilots. The bomber pilot would typically then turn sharply and dive before heading on a course for home as a countermeasure to avoid predicted anti-aircraft fire or night fighter attack.[171]

Lancaster which crash landed with battle damage on its return. The airfield is equipped with FIDO aka Fog Intense Dispersal Operation" or "Fog, Intense Dispersal Of"), hence the pipe running along the ground beneath the Lancaster

During some attacks markers could be obliterated by the bombing, causing the "Master Bomber" to call a halt on bombing while the markers were re-set and confirmed acceptable before bombing could restart. During this time bombers were under constant attack. Airmen's memoirs mention flying over target areas below which were like "Dante's Inferno",[172] with acres of red and orange flame punctuated by percussion shock waves as bombs exploded and, while sympathy with anybody on the ground is sometimes expressed, mention is usually made of the prior German Blitz bombing of Coventry and London.[169] Wartime reports and aircrew memoirs make regular mention of intense, brightly coloured violent explosions within the bomber stream which often showered clouds of sparks which aircrew referred to as "scarecrows" and believed were a type of pyrotechnic shell designed to scare aircrew. Post-war assessment confirmed that these were actually almost certainly bombers receiving direct anti-aircraft hits in their bomb bays, exploding in mid-air or from Schräge Musik cannon-equipped Luftwaffe night fighters shooting into bombers' wing fuel tanks or bomb bays.[173]

Halifax bomber crew heading for debriefing.

After making their attack the crew would head away from the target area, making as much speed as possible on the track for home while avoiding known flak concentrations and fighter hot-spots. Night fighters continued to hunt along the returning bomber stream, claiming victims back towards the North Sea and out to sea. Vigilance had to be maintained or even increased; at a time when tiredness was beginning to increase some airmen would have taken their issued Benzedrine "wakey wakey" tablets to keep them vigilant.[174] On several occasions the Luftwaffe mounted night intruder raids and followed the bombers home over England, shooting them down before they were able to land.[175][176]

On arrival back at base, the bombers were granted permission to land based on their fuel reserves, wounded crewmen and battle damage.[177] Crippled bombers flying on two or three engines or with wounded crewmen aboard sometimes could not make it back to base and would land at any available airfield they found; RAF Woodbridge was a recognised emergency landing place.[178][179]

Debriefing back at base.

Vigilance was always maintained as Luftwaffe night fighters flying as "night intruders" sometimes followed the bombers home and attacked as aircraft came into land.[180] If the conditions were foggy[181] or particularly poor on their return, it was not unusual for aircraft to be diverted to more distant bases which were clear.[182] Arriving back at base, crews were promptly ferried to de-briefing, where mugs of tea were distributed while each crew was interviewed and a detailed operational report[165] compiled before a generous bacon-and-egg breakfast could be claimed.[183]

To improve the accuracy of bombing RAF Bomber Command formed No. 8 Group RAF, Pathfinder Force from a cadre of highly experienced squadron and flight commanders supported by several highly experienced pilots, navigators and bomb aimers. The concept was for the highly experienced elite Pathfinder Force aircrews to fly a little ahead of the main force and drop marker flares known as "target indicators" directly on to the target as an aiming point for the less experienced crews following them. Pathfinders were awarded a special gilt metal Pathfinder wings to be worn on the tunic denoting their status.[193]

The Pathfinder wings worn beneath the aircrew flying badge by members of Pathfinder Force

The Pathfinder crews in turn released their target indicators on different marker flares laid for them by their leader, who flew minutes ahead in a de Havilland Mosquito light bomber to identify the precise target buildings at very low level. This Pathfinder leader was known as the master bomber and usually had a second-in-command flying in support in case he was shot down or failed to mark the target accurately and it required a second set of "markers".

On a very large attack there might be an officer in overall control; he was known as the "master of ceremonies".[194] Aircrews who had completed a substantial part of their tours and were regarded by their own squadrons as operationally keen and conscientious were liable to be "poached" by Pathfinder Force transferring to the elite Pathfinder squadrons to complete extended tours of 45 or more operations.[195] Other crews completing their tours of operations could transfer at that point to Pathfinder squadrons for a further 15 or more "ops" before being "screened"; several crews went on to complete up to 65 "ops".[196][197]

Some experienced airmen returned to operations repeatedly at their own request, and several are recorded to have flown 100–120 operations. Flight Lieutenant Ted Stocker DSO DFC, a flight engineer leader, flew 105 operations.[198] Squadron Leader Alec Cranswick DSO DFC, who was killed in action on 5 July 1944 flying with No. 35 Squadron RAF,[199] is reported to have flown more than 107 operations (missions) and possibly as many as 143.[200] Squadron Leader Daniel Everett DFC and 2 Bars, is reported to have flown more than 120 operations before being killed in action on 8 March 1945 flying with No. 35 Squadron RAF,[201] although elsewhere his total is given as 99.[202] Group Captain Willie Tait DSO*** DFC* flew at least 101 operations and survived. Squadron Leader Robert Anthony Maurice Palmer VC, DFC and Bar of No. 582 Squadron RAF and No. 109 Squadron RAF was returning from his 111th operation when he was killed.[203]

An RAAF rear gunner's grave

A total of 57,205 members of RAF Bomber Command or airmen flying on attachment to RAF Bomber Command were killed or posted missing in World War II.[2] It was not unusual for the heavy bombers to complete their operational sortie and return home with members of their crew dead or dying aboard the aircraft,[210] or with the rear-gun turret blown off.[211] In the very last months of the war, aircrew who had been shot down were sometimes unfortunate enough to land safely by parachute, only to be mobbed and beaten to death by enraged German civilians. Rare cases are recorded where local Nazi Party leaders actively incited lynchings or permitted captured aircrew to be murdered almost immediately after they landed.[212]

Name	Country	Fatalities[213]
Royal Air Force	United Kingdom	39,804
Royal Canadian Air Force	Canada	10,183
Royal Australian Air Force	Australia	4,089
Royal New Zealand Air Force	New Zealand	1,703
Polskie Siły Powietrzne	Poland	977
Forces Aériennes Françaises Libres	France	218
Others	Includes: 68 members of the United States Army Air Forces, 34 Norwegians, and 12 South Africans. While 311 Squadron was officially a "Czechoslovak" unit, its personnel were officially members of the RAFVR and are not counted separately.	231

Model of Stalag Luft III prison camp.

The majority of RAF Bomber Command aircrew lost over enemy-held territory or the sea were killed although 9,838 became prisoners of war.[214] During World War II 156 aircrew taken prisoner of war successfully escaped from German prisoner of war camps in Western Europe, and 1,975 airmen evaded capture, being hidden by local resistance groups after being shot down in Western Europe.[215] It is reported that more than half of the escapers and evaders were RAF Bomber Command airmen.[216] A recent specialised study of airmen "evaders" shot down over Western Europe states that a post-war summary prepared by British Military Intelligence (MI9) recorded that 695 officers and 1,270 enlisted men had evaded capture; however, the study identified and listed 2,198 airmen.[217] A number of evading aircrew were captured due to the duplicity of French collaborators who betrayed them to the Gestapo.[218]

Air Commodore Ronald Ivelaw-Chapman, a staff officer at No. 1 Group RAF, was the highest-ranking officer of RAF Bomber Command to be taken prisoner in World War II while flying operationally; he was flying as second pilot aboard an Avro Lancaster of No. 576 Squadron RAF on the night 6–7 May 1944.[219]

Distinguished Flying Medal

The German Luftwaffe had responsibility for Allied aircrew taken prisoner in North West Europe, and it is on record in numerous biographies that the Luftwaffe personnel running the prisoner of war camps treated captured aircrew properly, with considerable patience and respect and provided food and shelter until the end of the war. Only if a member of aircrew escaped from a Luftwaffe prisoner of war camp was he at risk of falling into the hands of the German Polizei (police forces were subordinated to the SS). Generally escapees were returned to prisoner of war camp, where they would spend time in a solitary confinement cell ("cooler") before being returned to the general population. After a mass escape in March 1944 from Stalag Luft III, a directive from Berlin resulted in the Stalag Luft III murders, an incident in which the Gestapo murdered 50 of the 76 escapees as an example to the Allied airmen that the huge amount of resources expended in searching for and recapturing escapers would not be tolerated.[220]

Aircrew escaping were rarely shot although a small number of incidents are recorded, and one airman was killed when he was hit by a railway train while dodging the Germans. Two incidents of individual escaped prisoners of war disappearing completely are recorded, Warrant Officer George Grimson, RAF[221] and Warrant Officer Roland Townsend-Coles, RAF.[222] Both were presumed murdered by Gestapo on recapture after running or participating in successful organisations inside Germany, assisted by forced labourers or anti-Nazi Germans, to assist escaping prisoners of war.[223]

Some RAF Bomber Command airmen received awards for their gallantry in specific actions or for their sustained courage facing the terrible odds against their surviving a full tour of operations. Enlisted men could receive a Distinguished Flying Medal or Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying). Commissioned officers and Warrant officers could receive a Distinguished Flying Cross. Commissioned officers, usually the more senior ranks, could receive a Distinguished Service Order which was sometimes awarded to junior officers for acts of exceptional bravery. All ranks were eligible for the award of a Victoria Cross if warranted.[224]

Most aircrew who flew operationally received the 1939–45 Star, the Aircrew Europe Star and the War Medal 1939–45 for their service if they flew during the period September 1939 to late April 1944. If they commenced operational flying between late April 1944 and May 1945 they would receive the 1939–45 Star, France and Germany Star and War Medal 1939–45 instead.[225]

Any aircrew who had already qualified for the Aircrew Europe Star group of medals, who flew operationally after 6 June 1944 (D-Day) would have been entitled to a small metal bar with the words "France and Germany" to sew to the ribbon of the Aircrew Europe Star. Any of the airmen who had served over 3 years on the Home Front would also have earned a Defence Medal.[226]

Commonwealth aircrew received additional medals as the Canadian government awarded their personnel the Canadian Volunteer Service Medal 1939–47 with a silver maple leaf clasp for service overseas, the Australian government awarded their personnel the Australia Service Medal 1939–45, the New Zealand government awarded their personnel the New Zealand War Service Medal 1939–45, the South Africans, South Rhodesians and Newfoundlanders all received their own service medals also.[227][228]