100 metres at the Olympics

The 100 metres at the Summer Olympics has been contested since the first edition of the multi-sport event. The men's 100 m has been present on the Olympic athletics programme since 1896. The 100 metres is considered one of the blue ribbon events of the Olympics and is among the highest profile competitions at the games. It is the most prestigious 100 m race at elite level and is the shortest sprinting competition at the Olympics – a position it has held at every edition except for a brief period between 1900 and 1904, when a men's 60 metres was contested.[1]

100 metres
at the Olympic Games
The 2008 Olympic men's 100 m final
Overview
SportAthletics
GenderMen and women
Years heldMen: 1896 – 2016
Women: 1928 – 2016
Olympic record
Men9.63  Usain Bolt (JAM) (2012)
Women10.62  Florence Griffith-Joyner (USA) (1988)
Reigning champion
Men Usain Bolt (JAM)
Women Elaine Thompson (JAM)

The first Olympic champions were both Americans: Thomas Burke in the men's category and, 32 years later, Betty Robinson in the women's category. The Olympic records for the event are 9.63 seconds, set by Usain Bolt in 2012, and 10.62 seconds, set by Florence Griffith-Joyner in 1988.[2][3][4] The world records for the event have been equalled or broken during the Olympics on seven occasions in the men's category and on twelve occasions in the women's.

Among the competing nations, the United States has had the most success in this event, having won sixteen golds in the men's race and nine in the women's race. Usain Bolt of Jamaica has won three consecutive titles (2008–16). Four other athletes have won back-to-back titles: Wyomia Tyus (1964–68), Carl Lewis (1984–88), Gail Devers (1992–96), and Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce (2008–12). Merlene Ottey is the only athlete to win three medals without winning gold, with one silver and two bronze medals.[5][6]

Many athletes that compete in this event also compete individually in the Olympic 200 metres and with their national teams in the Olympic 4×100 metres relay. Nine men have achieved the 100 metres and 200 metres 'Double' at the same Olympic Games - Archie Hahn (1904), Ralph Craig (1912), Percy Williams (1928), Eddie Tolan (1932), Jesse Owens (1936), Bobby Morrow (1956), Valeriy Borzov (1972), Carl Lewis (1984), and Usain Bolt (2008, 2012, 2016). Four of these men were also members of the winning team in the 4x100 meters relay at the same games - Jesse Owens (1936), Bobby Morrow (1956), Carl Lewis (1984), and Usain Bolt (2008, 2012, 2016). Two of these men have won a fourth gold medal at the same games - Archie Hahn in the now defunct 60 metres, and both Jesse Owens and Carl Lewis in the long jump.

Seven women have achieved the 100 metres and 200 metres 'Double' at the same Olympic Games - Fanny Blankers-Koen (1948), Marjorie Jackson (1952), Betty Cuthbert (1956), Wilma Rudolph (1960), Renate Stecher (1972), Florence Griffith-Joyner (1988), and Elaine Thompson (2016). Four of these women were also members of the winning team in the 4x100 meters relay at the same games - Fanny Blankers-Koen (1948), Betty Cuthbert (1956), Wilma Rudolph (1960), and Florence Griffith-Joyner (1988). Fanny Blankers-Koen is the only one of these women to win four gold medals at the same games by winning the 80 metres hurdles in 1948.

Two of the highest profile doping scandals have involved the Olympic 100 m competition: Ben Johnson won the 1988 Olympic 100 m title in a world record time of 9.79 seconds but was later stripped of the titles after failing a drug test. Marion Jones was the 2000 women's Olympic 100 m gold medallist but had her results annulled after admitting to using performance-enhancing drugs during her Olympic victory. There were also revelations of state-sponsored doping systems in communist countries of the Soviet Bloc and in present-day Russia. These controversies have affected public perceptions of drug usage among sprint athletes, as well as track and field and the Olympics in general.


Competition format
Women competing in the first round of the Olympic 100 m in 2012

The Olympic 100 metres competitions are carried out under standard international rules, as set by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). The races are segregated by gender, with one for men and one for women.[7] The 100 m is usually held at the beginning of the Olympic athletics programme as this allows athletes to compete in other events held later at the games – many 100 m athletes also compete in the 200 metres and the 4×100 metres relay events.[8]

Traditionally there are four rounds of competition: heats, quarter-finals, semi-finals, and finals. Prior to 1964, finals featured six athletes.[9] For all Olympic competitions from 1964 onwards—allowing for a sufficient number of athletes being present—each race features eight runners.[10] Athletes are seeded by past performance to ensure an even balance of quality across the heats and allow the best runners to progress to the later stages. Usually in the first two rounds the top three runners progress to the next stage. A small number of other athletes also progress as the fastest non-qualifiers (or "fastest losers") through a repechage system. Prior to 2012, the semi-finals stage comprised two races of eight athletes and the top four finishers in each race (regardless of time) were entered into the final.[11]

The 2012 women's Olympic 100 m medallists

Several amendments were made to the competition format in 2012. Any participant not in possession of an Olympic qualifying standard time is entered into the preliminary round. Qualifiers in this round progress to the first round proper. The semi-finals stage is divided into three races: the top two progress to the final by right and the two fastest non-qualifiers complete the eight finalists. Changes to the international false start rules were also introduced – any validly recorded reaction time to the starter's pistol of below 0.1 seconds will result in instant disqualification.[11] At the 2004 and 2008 Olympics one false start was allowed per race, with any subsequent false start resulting in disqualification for the offending athletes. At Olympics prior to 2004 each athlete was allowed one false start, with a second false start leading to removal from the field.[12][13]

The top three finishers in the final are awarded a gold, silver and bronze medal, respectively. If runners cannot be separated by their time (recorded to one hundredth of a second) further analysis is used to distinguish their times to the thousandth of a second. In the 2008 Women's 100 m final the minor medallists Sherone Simpson and Kerron Stewart could not be separated by this method and were both awarded the silver medal.[14] Medal positions in a 100 m race have only been shared on one other occasion in Olympic history: Alajos Szokolyi and Francis Lane were joint third at the 1896 men's final.[15] If it is subsequently found that an athlete broke the competition rules then the IOC may strip athletes of their Olympic medals. This has occurred twice in the 100 m: Ben Johnson was awarded gold at the 1988 Seoul Olympics, but was soon disqualified after his post-race drug test was positive for banned substances.[16] The 2000 women's Olympic champion Marion Jones held her medal for a longer period, and was only disqualified seven years later after admitting to doping during that period.[17]

Participation

Starting with 15 men from eight nations at the inaugural 1896 Olympic 100 m, participation in the event reached its peak at the 2000 Sydney Games, where 179 male and female athletes from 100 nations were present. The number of competitors and nations in the event has seen an increasing historical trend. This increase has been mostly linear, though participation dropped slightly in the 1904 and 1932 Olympics hosted in the United States (reflecting greater travel costs) and was also affected by the Olympic boycotts of 1976, 1980 and 1984. The linear trend stopped after the 2000 peak and has steadily decreased in subsequent Summer Olympics.[5][6]

Qualifying standards
Year Men "A" Men "B" Women "A" Women "B"
200010.2710.4011.4011.60
200410.2110.2811.3011.40
200810.2110.2811.3211.42
201210.1810.2411.2911.38
201610.16N/A11.32N/A

Men's participation reached its highest at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, which featured 104 men from 75 nations. Women's participation began in 1928, with 31 women from 13 nations competing, and reached an all-time high at the 2008 Beijing Games, which had 85 women representing 69 nations. The 2008 and 2012 editions reversed the historical gender bias towards male participation, as women outnumbered men at the Olympic 100 m for the first time.[5][6]

As the governing body for the sport of athletics, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) applies qualifying standards to the competition. This aims to encourage high level performances at the Olympic Games and contain the number of potential entries (the IAAF aims to cap Olympic participation in athletics events at 2000 athletes). There are two types of qualifying standard: the "A" standard and the "B" standard. Each National Olympic Committee (NOC) may enter up to three athletes who have obtained the "A" standard, or one athlete with the "B" standard. If a NOC has no qualifying athletes in any Olympic athletic event, it may enter one non-qualified athlete – the 100 m is a frequent choice for this type of entry given the brevity of the event. Athletes must achieve the qualifying time without wind-assistance at an officially authorised event within a certain time period, which typically begins from the year prior to the Olympics and extends up to three weeks before the games. The IAAF prohibits entrants who do not reach the age of sixteen in that Olympic year, but there is no upper age limit. The IAAF qualifying standards for the 100 m have become progressively more stringent since 2000.[18][19][20][21]

On top of IAAF standards, national governing bodies may apply their own participation restrictions. These principally come in four forms: stricter national qualifying times, reduced time periods for qualifying performances,[22] performances in the event at a national Olympic trials, and decisions of national selection committees. Smaller nations do not typically apply these additional criteria due to the smaller numbers of sprinters eligible to compete. Larger nations, and nations with strong traditions in sprinting, often have long-running histories of Olympic 100 m trials (such as at the United States Olympic Trials). Participation for a country also demands that the athlete hold respective citizenship and is not subject to a competitive ban through anti-doping rules.[23]

Year No. of
men		 Nations
(men)		 No. of
women		 Nations
(women)		 Total
athletes		 Total
nations		 Men's champion Women's champion
1896[15]158N/AN/A158 Thomas Burke (USA)N/A
1900[24]209N/AN/A209 Frank Jarvis (USA)N/A
1904[25]113N/AN/A113 Archie Hahn (USA)N/A
1908[26]6016N/AN/A6016 Reggie Walker (RSA)N/A
1912[27]7022N/AN/A7022 Ralph Craig (USA)N/A
1920[28]6123N/AN/A6123 Charlie Paddock (USA)N/A
1924[29]8634N/AN/A8634 Harold Abrahams (GBR)N/A
1928[30][31]8133311310735 Percy Williams (CAN) Betty Robinson (USA)
1932[32][33]331720105119 Eddie Tolan (USA) Stanisława Walasiewicz (POL)
1936[34][35]613030159133 Jesse Owens (USA) Helen Stephens (USA)
1948[36][37]613338219939 Harrison Dillard (USA) Fanny Blankers-Koen (NED)
1952[38][39]7033562712641 Lindy Remigino (USA) Marjorie Jackson (AUS)
1956[40][41]633134169734 Bobby Morrow (USA) Betty Cuthbert (AUS)
1960[9][42]594531189050 Armin Hary (EUA) Wilma Rudolph (USA)
1964[10][43]7149442711556 Bob Hayes (USA) Wyomia Tyus (USA)
1968[44][45]6342422210548 Jim Hines (USA) Wyomia Tyus (USA)
1972[46][47]8355473313068 Valeriy Borzov (URS) Renate Stecher (GDR)
1976[48][49]6140392210045 Hasely Crawford (TRI) Annegret Richter (FRG)
1980[50][51]6341402510346 Allan Wells (GBR) Lyudmila Kondratyeva (URS)
1984[52][53]8059463312668 Carl Lewis (USA) Evelyn Ashford (USA)
1988[54][55]10069644216485 Carl Lewis (USA) Florence Griffith-Joyner (USA)
1992[56][57]7966544113386 Linford Christie (GBR) Gail Devers (USA)
1996[58][59]10475563816089 Donovan Bailey (CAN) Gail Devers (USA)
2000[60][61]95718463179100 Maurice Greene (USA)Vacated[62]
2004[63][64]8062635114389 Justin Gatlin (USA) Yulia Nestsiarenka (BLR)
2008[65][66]7864856916396 Usain Bolt (JAM) Shelly-Ann Fraser (JAM)
2012[67][68]7261796515192 Usain Bolt (JAM) Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce (JAM)
2016 84 57 80 56 164 82  Usain Bolt (JAM)  Elaine Thompson (JAM)
Data notes
  • Numbers do not include non-starting athletes. There have been two Olympic 100 m non-starters: Estonia's Reinhold Saulmann in 1920, and Kim Collins in 2012 – the latter was banned from competing by the St. Kitts and Nevis Olympic Committee for defying their orders and leaving the Olympic camp to stay with his wife.[69]
  • Nations are above defined as the competing Olympic team as opposed to athletes' legal nationalities – the various Unified teams and Independent Olympian teams are thus each treated as one nation at that Olympic Games.

Biological factors

Age

The 100 m requires a high level of athleticism and as a result most of the participants in the Olympics are aged between 18 and 35 – which is roughly contiguous with the period of peak physical fitness in humans.[70] Consequently, the vast majority of participants in the Olympic 100 m fall within this age range.[67][68] As of 2020, the qualification rules prohibit athletes younger than 16 at the end of the year of the Games.[71]

The record for the youngest athlete to participate in the Olympic 100 m is held by Katura Marae, who was 14 when she represented Vanuatu at the 2004 Athens Olympics.[72] Merlene Ottey holds the records for both the oldest participant and the oldest medallist, having won bronze at age 40 in 2000 and reached the Olympic semi-finals four years later. (Ottey is also the most frequent participant having competed in the Olympic 100 m an unrivalled six times from 1984 to 2004).[73] The first women's champion, Betty Robinson in 1928, remains the youngest gold medallist for the event at 16 years old,[74] while a 32-year-old Linford Christie became the oldest 100 m Olympic champion in 1992.[75]

Distinction Male athlete Age Female athlete Age
Youngest champion Reggie Walker19 years, 4 months, 6 days[76] Betty Robinson16 years, 11 months, 8 days[74]
Youngest medallist Donald Lippincott18 years, 7 months, 21 days[77] Betty Robinson16 years, 11 months, 8 days[74]
Youngest participant Alphonse Yanghat15 years, 3 months, 27 days[78] Katura Marae14 years, 8 months, 17 days[72]
Oldest champion Linford Christie32 years, 3 months, 30 days[75] Fanny Blankers-Koen30 years, 3 months, 7 days[79]
Oldest medallist Linford Christie32 years, 3 months, 30 days[75] Merlene Ottey40 years, 4 months, 14 days[73]
Oldest participant Stefan Burkart38 years, 10 months, 14 days[80] Merlene Ottey44 years, 4 months, 11 days[73]

Gender

Since introduction of testing by the IAAF in the early-20th century, female sprinters may be subject to gender verification. This rule was first formally applied to the 100 m at the 1968 Mexico Olympics.[81] No 100 m sprinter has been publicly barred at an Olympic competition. However, there have been historic cases involving two women's medallists: 1932 champion Stanisława Walasiewicz and 1964 bronze medallist Ewa Kłobukowska, both of Poland. Walasiewicz endured accusations during her career due to her appearance, but was never subject to a test.[82] An autopsy following her death in a shooting revealed ambiguous genitalia.[83] Walasiewicz accused Helen Stephens (who beat her in the 1936 final) of being male and, despite there being no relevant rules on the matter, officials performed a physical examination of Stephens' external genitalia and concluded that she was female. Kłobukowska was not tested at the Olympics, thus did not lose her Olympic medals, but was subsequently disqualified at the 1967 European Cup on the basis of having a chromosomal mosaic.[82][84] Intersex athletes are restricted from competition in the 100 m without having undergone surgery and hormonal therapy, as a result of the 2003 Stockholm consensus ruling by the IOC.[85]

Race
All the runners in the 2012 Olympic men's 100 m final were either African-American or Afro-Caribbean
See also: Race and sports

Olympic 100 m medallists in the early editions of the Modern Olympic Games were principally white, Western sprinters of European descent, largely reflecting the make up of the nations that took part. As the Olympic competition began to attract wider international participation, athletes with African heritage began to reach the 100 m Olympic podium, particularly African-Americans and Afro-Caribbeans.[86]

Eddie Tolan became the first non-white winner of the event in 1932 and this signified the start of a prolonged period of success by black male sprinters; since 1932 only five men's Olympic champions in the event have not had significant African heritage. The women's event was dominated by runners of European descent until Wilma Rudolph won the title in 1960. Soviet and German women returned to the podium in the period from 1972 to 1980, but since then African-American and Jamaican women have won the great majority of 100 m medals.[86] Dominance in the men's event has been particularly pronounced from 1984 to 2016, during which time all the men's Olympic 100 m finalists have been of African heritage.[87]

Most commentators attribute this statistical discrepancy to genetic rather than to cultural factors.[88][89][90]

Doping

All athletes who participate in the Olympic 100 m competition are subject to the World Anti-Doping Code –the IAAF and International Olympic Committee (IOC) are both signatories. Mandatory in-competition drug testing was introduced at the 1968 Summer Olympics.[16]

One of the most prominent cases of doping at the Olympics, and in sport as a whole, occurred during the 1988 Seoul Olympics. Ben Johnson entered the race as the reigning 100 metres world record holder and won the Olympic final, raising his arm in victory, in a new world record of 9.79 seconds to much fanfare. Soon after being awarded the gold medal the results of his post-race drug test revealed his urine contained traces of stanozolol (a banned steroid).[91] Johnson later admitted to doping, but he and his coach Charlie Francis still claimed he had his drink spiked at the Olympics, as Johnson was taking a different type of steroid at the time.[92] The positive test had long-lasting effects on public perception of the sport and advanced the case for more stringent drug testing. The Canadian government launched an investigation into drugs in sport, known as the Dubin Inquiry, the following year.[93] The 1988 Olympic men's 100 metres final has been referred to as "the dirtiest race in history", as only two of the eight finalists remained free of doping issues during their careers.[94]

Ekaterini Thanou, the 2000 women's silver medallist, was barred from the 2004 Athens Olympics after failing to attend a pre-competition drugs test (her third consecutive missed test). The Greek sprinter and her teammate Kostas Kenteris were convicted of staging a motorcycle crash to avoid the test, but this was overturned on appeal. Her doping ban remained as they admitted to having missed the tests.[95] Tameka Williams was banned from competing in the 100 m at the 2012 Olympics when, at the Olympic village, she admitted to the Saint Kitts and Nevis management team that she had ingesting a banned substance.[96] Bulgaria's Tezdzhan Naimova had her 2008 Olympic performance annulled and received a two-year ban after it was proved that she had tampered with her drug test a month prior to the competition.[97]

Marion Jones receiving one of her 2000 Olympic medals she would later be stripped of

Another high-profile doping case involved the 2000 Olympic women's 100 m champion Marion Jones, though no doping infractions occurred during the Olympics. Having been one of the stars of the games—she won three gold and two bronze medals in track and field events—Jones was later implicated in doping through the BALCO scandal. She lied to federal agents and a grand jury during questioning around the scandal, but later admitted in 2007 to using Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) during the period of her Olympic success.[17] The IOC annulled all her Olympic results, including her 100 m title. Given that the 2000 women's runner-up Ekaterini Thanou had herself been banned for drug usage, the IOC chose not to upgrade her to the gold medal position, but rather leave the position vacant.[98] Working around the dilemma, the IOC decided to raise bronze medallist Tayna Lawrence to joint silver and fourth-placed Merlene Ottey to the bronze medal position.[99]

In spite of the relatively few occasions in which 100 m sprinters have failed doping tests at the Olympics, numerous Olympic sprinters have been banned outside the competition or implicated otherwise, including many medallists. Two-time Olympic champion Carl Lewis had a positive drug test for stimulants at the US Olympic trials. The United States Olympic Committee accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss).[100] The 1992 Olympic champion Linford Christie was banned for nandrolone later in his career.[101] Angel Guillermo Heredia accused the 2000 Olympic champion Maurice Greene of doping; Greene denied this but admitted to paying for "stuff" for his training mates.[102] Justin Gatlin, the men's gold medallist in 2004, served a doping suspension both before and after his Olympic win, and returned to the podium at the 2012 Olympics.[103] The men's runner-up in 2012, Yohan Blake, was banned for consuming a stimulant in 2009.[104]

On the women's side, the Olympic 100 m was affected by state-sponsored doping in East Germany. Stasi documents released after the fall of the Berlin Wall revealed extensive drug usage by Olympic sprinters, including the 1976 and 1980 silver medallists Renate Stecher and Marlies Göhr, as well as the 1988 bronze medallist Heike Drechsler.[105][106] Shelly-Ann Fraser, twice Olympic champion, received a six-month ban in 2010 for taking a prohibited narcotic for pain relief.[107] A similar system was in place in the Soviet Union with major revelations concerning the Soviet state-sponsored doping program in preparation for the 1984 Olympics coming to light in 2016.[108] The 2008 runner-up Sherone Simpson was banned in 2013 after a positive test for a stimulant and two-time bronze medallist Veronica Campbell-Brown failed a test for a diuretic that same year.[109] A fourth Jamaican medallist, Merlene Ottey, received a ban for the steroid nandrolone in 1999 but this was rescinded on appeal due to laboratory errors.[110][111]

Medal summary

Men
Games Gold Silver Bronze
1896 Athens
  Thomas Burke (USA)  Fritz Hofmann (GER)  Francis Lane (USA)
 Alajos Szokolyi (HUN)
1900 Paris
  Frank Jarvis (USA)  Walter Tewksbury (USA)  Stan Rowley (AUS)
1904 St. Louis
  Archie Hahn (USA)  Nathaniel Cartmell (USA)  William Hogenson (USA)
1908 London
  Reggie Walker (RSA)  James Rector (USA)  Robert Kerr (CAN)
1912 Stockholm
  Ralph Craig (USA)  Alvah Meyer (USA)  Donald Lippincott (USA)
1920 Antwerp
  Charley Paddock (USA)  Morris Kirksey (USA)  Harry Edward (GBR)
1924 Paris
  Harold Abrahams (GBR)  Jackson Scholz (USA)  Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt (NZL)
1928 Amsterdam
  Percy Williams (CAN)  Jack London (GBR)  Georg Lammers (GER)
1932 Los Angeles
  Eddie Tolan (USA)  Ralph Metcalfe (USA)  Arthur Jonath (GER)
1936 Berlin
  Jesse Owens (USA)  Ralph Metcalfe (USA)  Tinus Osendarp (NED)
1948 London
  Harrison Dillard (USA)  Barney Ewell (USA)  Lloyd LaBeach (PAN)
1952 Helsinki
  Lindy Remigino (USA)  Herb McKenley (JAM)  McDonald Bailey (GBR)
1956 Melbourne
  Bobby Morrow (USA)  Thane Baker (USA)  Hector Hogan (AUS)
1960 Rome
  Armin Hary (EUA)  Dave Sime (USA)  Peter Radford (GBR)
1964 Tokyo
  Bob Hayes (USA)  Enrique Figuerola (CUB)  Harry Jerome (CAN)
1968 Mexico City
  Jim Hines (USA)  Lennox Miller (JAM)  Charles Greene (USA)
1972 Munich
  Valeriy Borzov (URS)  Robert Taylor (USA)  Lennox Miller (JAM)
1976 Montreal
  Hasely Crawford (TRI)  Don Quarrie (JAM)  Valeriy Borzov (URS)
1980 Moscow
  Allan Wells (GBR)  Silvio Leonard (CUB)  Petar Petrov (BUL)
1984 Los Angeles
  Carl Lewis (USA)  Sam Graddy (USA)  Ben Johnson (CAN)
1988 Seoul[112][113]
  Carl Lewis (USA)  Linford Christie (GBR)  Calvin Smith (USA)
1992 Barcelona
  Linford Christie (GBR)  Frankie Fredericks (NAM)  Dennis Mitchell (USA)
1996 Atlanta
  Donovan Bailey (CAN)  Frankie Fredericks (NAM)  Ato Boldon (TRI)
2000 Sydney
  Maurice Greene (USA)  Ato Boldon (TRI)  Obadele Thompson (BAR)
2004 Athens
  Justin Gatlin (USA)  Francis Obikwelu (POR)  Maurice Greene (USA)
2008 Beijing
  Usain Bolt (JAM)  Richard Thompson (TRI)  Walter Dix (USA)
2012 London
  Usain Bolt (JAM)  Yohan Blake (JAM)  Justin Gatlin (USA)
2016 Rio de Janeiro
  Usain Bolt (JAM)  Justin Gatlin (USA)  Andre De Grasse (CAN)

Multiple medallists
Rank Athlete Nation Olympics Gold Silver Bronze Total
1Usain Bolt Jamaica (JAM)2008–20163003
2Carl Lewis United States (USA)1984–19882002
3Justin Gatlin United States (USA)2004–20161113
4Linford Christie Great Britain (GBR)1988–19921102
5Valeriy Borzov Soviet Union (URS)1972–19761012
Maurice Greene United States (USA)2000–20041012
7Ralph Metcalfe United States (USA)1932–19360202
Frankie Fredericks Namibia (NAM)1992–19960202
9Lennox Miller Jamaica (JAM)1968–19720112
Ato Boldon Trinidad and Tobago (TRI)1996–20000112

Medals by country
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 United States (USA)1614939
2 Jamaica (JAM)3418
3 Great Britain (GBR)3238
4 Canada (CAN)2046
5 Trinidad and Tobago (TRI)1214
6 Soviet Union (URS)1012
7 South Africa (RSA)1001
 United Team of Germany (EUA)1001
9 Cuba (CUB)0202
 Namibia (NAM)0202
11 Germany (GER)0123
12 Portugal (POR)0101
13 Australia (AUS)0022
14 Barbados (BAR)0011
 Bulgaria (BUL)0011
 Hungary (HUN)0011
 Netherlands (NED)0011
 New Zealand (NZL)0011
 Panama (PAN)0011
19Totals28282985

Women
Games Gold Silver Bronze
1928 Amsterdam
 Betty Robinson
 United States		 Fanny Rosenfeld
 Canada		 Ethel Smith
 Canada
1932 Los Angeles
 Stanisława Walasiewicz
 Poland		 Hilda Strike
 Canada		 Wilhelmina von Bremen
 United States
1936 Berlin
 Helen Stephens
 United States		 Stanisława Walasiewicz
 Poland		 Käthe Krauß
 Germany
1948 London
 Fanny Blankers-Koen
 Netherlands		 Dorothy Manley
 Great Britain		 Shirley Strickland
 Australia
1952 Helsinki
 Marjorie Jackson
 Australia		 Daphne Hasenjager
 South Africa		 Shirley Strickland de la Hunty
 Australia
1956 Melbourne
 Betty Cuthbert
 Australia		 Christa Stubnick
 United Team of Germany		 Marlene Matthews
 Australia
1960 Rome
 Wilma Rudolph
 United States		 Dorothy Hyman
 Great Britain		 Giuseppina Leone
 Italy
1964 Tokyo
 Wyomia Tyus
 United States		 Edith McGuire
 United States		 Ewa Kłobukowska
 Poland
1968 Mexico City
 Wyomia Tyus
 United States		 Barbara Ferrell
 United States		 Irena Szewińska
 Poland
1972 Munich
 Renate Stecher
 East Germany		 Raelene Boyle
 Australia		 Silvia Chivás
 Cuba
1976 Montreal
 Annegret Richter
 West Germany		 Renate Stecher
 East Germany		 Inge Helten
 West Germany
1980 Moscow
 Lyudmila Kondratyeva
 Soviet Union		 Marlies Göhr
 East Germany		 Ingrid Auerswald
 East Germany
1984 Los Angeles
 Evelyn Ashford
 United States		 Alice Brown
 United States		 Merlene Ottey
 Jamaica
1988 Seoul
 Florence Griffith-Joyner
 United States		 Evelyn Ashford
 United States		 Heike Drechsler
 East Germany
1992 Barcelona
 Gail Devers
 United States		 Juliet Cuthbert
 Jamaica		 Irina Privalova
 Unified Team
1996 Atlanta
 Gail Devers
 United States		 Merlene Ottey
 Jamaica		 Gwen Torrence
 United States
2000 Sydney
 Vacant[114] Ekaterini Thanou
 Greece		 Merlene Ottey
 Jamaica
Tayna Lawrence
 Jamaica
2004 Athens
 Yulia Nestsiarenka
 Belarus		 Lauryn Williams
 United States		 Veronica Campbell
 Jamaica
2008 Beijing
 Shelly-Ann Fraser
 Jamaica		 Sherone Simpson
 Jamaica		 none awarded
Kerron Stewart
 Jamaica
2012 London
 Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce
 Jamaica		 Carmelita Jeter
 United States		 Veronica Campbell-Brown
 Jamaica
2016 Rio de Janeiro
 Elaine Thompson
 Jamaica		 Tori Bowie
 United States		 Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce
 Jamaica

Multiple medallists
Rank Athlete Nation Olympics Gold Silver Bronze Total
1Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce Jamaica (JAM)2008–20162013
2Wyomia Tyus United States (USA)1964–19682002
Gail Devers United States (USA)1992–19962002
4Stanisława Walasiewicz Poland (POL)1932–19361102
Renate Stecher East Germany (GDR)1972–19761102
Evelyn Ashford United States (USA)1984–19881102
7Merlene Ottey Jamaica (JAM)1984–20000123
8Shirley Strickland Australia (AUS)1948–19520022
Veronica Campbell-Brown Jamaica (JAM)2004–20120022

Medals by country
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 United States (USA)97218
2 Jamaica (JAM)35513
3 Australia (AUS)2136
4 East Germany (GDR)1225
5 Poland (POL)1124
6 West Germany (FRG)1012
7 Belarus (BLR)1001
 Netherlands (NED)1001
 Soviet Union (URS)1001
10 Canada (CAN)0213
11 Great Britain (GBR)0202
12 Greece (GRE)0101
 South Africa (RSA)0101
 United Team of Germany (EUA)0101
15 Cuba (CUB)0011
 Germany (GER)0011
 Italy (ITA)0011
 Unified Team (EUN)0011
18Totals20232063

Medals by country
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 United States (USA)25211157
2 Jamaica (JAM)69620
3 Great Britain (GBR)34310
4 Canada (CAN)2259
5 Australia (AUS)2158
6 Soviet Union (URS)2013
7 East Germany (GDR)1225
8 Trinidad and Tobago (TRI)1214
9 Poland (POL)1124
10 South Africa (RSA)1102
 United Team of Germany (EUA)1102
12 Netherlands (NED)1012
 West Germany (FRG)1012
14 Belarus (BLR)1001
15 Cuba (CUB)0213
16 Namibia (NAM)0202
17 Germany (GER)0134
18 Greece (GRE)0101
 Portugal (POR)0101
20 Barbados (BAR)0011
 Bulgaria (BUL)0011
 Hungary (HUN)0011
 Italy (ITA)0011
 New Zealand (NZL)0011
 Panama (PAN)0011
 Unified Team (EUN)0011
26Totals485149148

Olympic record progression

The best time for the 100 m set during Olympic competition is known as the Olympic record. To count as an official record, the race and the equipment used must adhere to IAAF international rules. Hand-timed results were the standard until 1975, when fully automatic timing (FAT) became the preferred method for officially measuring athletes' times. Further to this wind conditions must be measured and any time achieved with a wind speed of over 2.0 metres per second in a direction behind the athlete is treated as wind-assisted and cannot be taken for an Olympic record mark.[115]

Since the first men's Olympic record of 12.2 seconds by Frank Lane in 1896, the record has been broken 13 times and matched 24 times. Twenty-eight men have been holder (or co-holder) of the record. Usain Bolt is the current record holder with 9.63, set in 2012. Further to this standing men's world record for the 100 m has been equalled five times in Olympic competition and improved twice (by Carl Lewis in 1988 with 9.92 and by Bolt in 2008 with 9.69). Ben Johnson's time of 9.79 was annulled before it was ratified as either an Olympic or world record.[115]

Since the initial women's Olympic record of 13.0 seconds was set by Anni Holdmann in 1928, it has been broken 18 times and equalled 17 further times. The standing women's 100 m world record has been improved five times during Olympic competition and equalled seven times.[115]

The tables below refer to hand-timing for races held prior to the 1972 Summer Olympics and to fully automatic times after that point, when they became the standard for the Olympics.[115] Hand-timed results that matched the Olympic record are treated as equalling the mark, with the exception of any athletes that matched that time but finished behind another athlete in their race.

Men
See also: Men's 100 metres world record progression
Thomas Curtis shared in the first Olympic record mark of 12.2 seconds.
After Ben Johnson's disqualification, Carl Lewis's time of 9.92 was established as the Olympic and world record time.
Time Athlete Nation Games Round Date
12.2Francis Lane United States (USA) 1896Heat 11896-04-06
12.2Thomas Curtis United States (USA) 1896Heat 21896-04-06
11.8Tom Burke United States (USA) 1896Heat 31896-04-06
11.4Arthur Duffey United States (USA) 1900Heat 11900-06-14
11.4Walter Tewksbury United States (USA) 1900Heat 21900-06-14
10.8 =WRFrank Jarvis United States (USA) 1900Heat 31900-06-14
10.8 =WRWalter Tewksbury United States (USA) 1900Semi-final 21900-06-14
10.8James Rector United States (USA) 1908Heat 151908-07-20
10.8Reggie Walker South Africa (RSA) 1908Semi-final 11908-07-20
10.8James Rector United States (USA) 1908Semi-final 31908-07-20
10.8Reggie Walker South Africa (RSA) 1908Final1908-07-20
10.8David Jacobs Great Britain (GBR) 1912Heat 101912-07-06
10.6Donald Lippincott United States (USA) 1912Heat 161912-07-06
10.6Harold Abrahams Great Britain (GBR) 1924Quarter-final 41924-07-06
10.6Harold Abrahams Great Britain (GBR) 1924Semi-final 21924-07-07
10.6Harold Abrahams Great Britain (GBR) 1924Final1924-07-07
10.6Percy Williams Canada (CAN) 1928Quarter-final 41928-07-29
10.6Robert McAllister United States (USA) 1928Semi-final 11928-07-30
10.6Jack London United States (USA) 1928Semi-final 21928-07-30
10.6Arthur Jonath Germany (GER) 1932Heat 31932-07-31
10.4Eddie Tolan United States (USA) 1932Quarter-final 11932-07-31
10.3 =WREddie Tolan United States (USA) 1932Final1932-08-01
10.3Jesse Owens United States (USA) 1936Heat 11936-08-02
10.3Harrison Dillard United States (USA) 1948Final1948-07-31
10.3Bobby Joe Morrow United States (USA) 1956Quarter-final 11956-11-23
10.3Ira Murchison United States (USA) 1956Quarter-final 21956-11-23
10.3Bobby Joe Morrow United States (USA) 1956Semi-final 21956-11-24
10.2Armin Hary West Germany (FRG) 1960Quarter-final 21960-08-31
10.2Armin Hary West Germany (FRG) 1960Final1960-08-31
10.0 =WRBob Hayes United States (USA) 1964Final1964-10-15
10.0 AHermes Ramírez Cuba (CUB) 1968Quarter-final 21968-10-13
10.0 ACharlie Greene United States (USA) 1968Quarter-final 41968-10-13
10.0 AJim Hines United States (USA) 1968Semi-final 11968-10-14
9.9 A =WRJim Hines United States (USA) 1968Final1968-10-14
9.92 WR[nb3]Carl Lewis United States (USA) 1988Final1988-09-24
9.84 WRDonovan Bailey Canada (CAN) 1996Final1996-07-27
9.69 WRUsain Bolt Jamaica (JAM) 2008Final2008-08-16
9.63Usain Bolt Jamaica (JAM) 2012Final2012-08-05
  • nb3 Carl Lewis's time of 9.92 seconds in the 1988 Olympic final was initially second to Ben Johnson's 9.79, but Johnson was disqualified soon after due to a failed drug test.[115]

Women
See also: Women's 100 metres world record progression
Wilma Rudolph's time of 11.3 in 1960 was an Olympic and world record time.
Irena Szewińska's time of 11.1 seconds stood as the Olympic record for one day.
No woman has run faster than Florence Griffith Joyner's Olympic record of 10.63 since it was set in 1988.
Time Athlete Nation Games Round Date
13.0Anni Holdmann Germany (GER) 1928Heat 11928-07-30
12.8Erna Steinberg Germany (GER) 1928Heat 21928-07-30
12.8Kinue Hitomi Japan (JPN) 1928Heat 31928-07-30
12.8Leni Junker Germany (GER) 1928Heat 41928-07-30
12.8Leni Schmidt Germany (GER) 1928Heat 61928-07-30
12.6Fanny Rosenfeld Canada (CAN) 1928Heat 71928-07-30
12.6Ethel Smith Canada (CAN) 1928Heat 91928-07-30
12.4Fanny Rosenfeld Canada (CAN) 1928Semi-final 11928-07-30
12.4Betty Robinson United States (USA) 1928Semi-final 21928-07-30
12.2 WRBetty Robinson United States (USA) 1928Final1928-07-31
12.2Marie Dollinger Germany (GER) 1932Heat 11932-08-01
11.9 WRStanisława Walasiewicz Poland (POL) 1932Heat 21932-08-01
11.9 =WRStanisława Walasiewicz Poland (POL) 1932Semi-final 21932-08-01
11.9 =WRStanisława Walasiewicz Poland (POL) 1932Final1932-08-02
11.9Fanny Blankers-Koen Netherlands (NED) 1948Final1948-08-02
11.9Catherine Hardy United States (USA) 1952Heat 71952-07-21
11.6Marjorie Jackson Australia (AUS) 1952Heat 81952-07-21
11.6Marjorie Jackson Australia (AUS) 1952Quarter-final 11952-07-21
11.5 =WRMarjorie Jackson Australia (AUS) 1952Quarter-final 11952-07-22
11.5Marlene Mathews Australia (AUS) 1956Heat 21956-11-24
11.4Betty Cuthbert Australia (AUS) 1956Heat 31956-11-24
11.3 =WRWilma Rudolph United States (USA) 1960Semi-final 11960-09-02
11.2 =WRWyomia Tyus United States (USA) 1964Quarter-final 11964-10-15
11.2 AWyomia Tyus United States (USA) 1968Heat 11968-10-14
11.2 AMargaret Bailes United States (USA) 1968Heat 21968-10-14
11.2 ABarbara Ferrell United States (USA) 1968Heat 61968-10-14
11.1 A =WRBarbara Ferrell United States (USA) 1968Quarter-final 11968-10-14
11.1 A =WRIrena Szewińska-Kirszenstein Poland (POL) 1968Quarter-final 41968-10-14
11.0 A WRWyomia Tyus United States (USA) 1968Final1968-10-15
11.07 WRRenate Stecher East Germany (GDR) 1972Quarter-final 11972-09-01
11.05Annegret Richter West Germany (FRG) 1976Quarter-final 11976-07-24
11.01 WRAnnegret Richter West Germany (FRG) 1976Semi-final 11976-07-25
10.97Evelyn Ashford United States (USA) 1984Final1984-08-05
10.88Florence Griffith Joyner United States (USA) 1988Heat 71988-09-24
10.88Evelyn Ashford United States (USA) 1988Quarter-final 21988-09-24
10.62Florence Griffith Joyner United States (USA) 1988Quarter-final 31988-09-24

Finishing times

The Olympic 100 m is the most prestigious competition for the distance and it attracts elite level, international competitors. The winner of the race is occasionally referred to as "the world's fastest" man or woman, reflecting the high level of the competition and the quality of performances.[116][117] As of February 2014, the current Olympic records of 9.63 for men and 10.62 seconds for women rank as the second and third fastest times in history, for men and women respectively.[118][119] The standard of performances at the Olympics has progressed in line with the discipline as a whole and the times in the final often rank highly in the end-of-season lists.[120][121][122] National records and personal bests are frequently improved at the event by sprinters from large and small nations alike, as most elite athletes aim to reach peak race fitness for the Olympics.[123][124]

The 2012 men's final was the fastest 100 m race in history, collectively: the top five men ran under 9.90 seconds for the first time ever and seven of the eight finalists ran under 10 seconds (the last runner suffered an injury).[125][126] Tyson Gay became the fastest non-medallist in history at that race with his time of 9.80 seconds.[118] Similarly, the 2012 women's final was, collectively, the fastest women's 100 m race ever: seven of the eight finalists ran 11 seconds or faster for the first time, with Veronica Campbell-Brown becoming the fastest ever bronze medallist with her time of 10.81 seconds and Tianna Madison becoming the fastest non-medallist with her time of 10.85 seconds.[119]

Top ten fastest Olympic times
  • H – time recorded in the heats
  • QF – time recorded in the quarter-finals
  • SF – time recorded in the semi-finals

Best time for place

Intercalated Games

The 1906 Intercalated Games were held in Athens and at the time were officially recognised as part of the Olympic Games series, with the intention being to hold a games in Greece in two-year intervals between the internationally held Olympics. However, this plan never came to fruition and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) later decided not to recognise these games as part of the official Olympic series. Some sports historians continue to treat the results of these games as part of the Olympic canon.[129]

At this event a men's 100 m was held and 1904 Olympic champion Archie Hahn of the United States won the race. Another American, Fay Moulton, was the runner-up and Australian Nigel Barker was the bronze medallist.[130]

Games Gold Silver Bronze
1906 Athens
  Archie Hahn (USA)  Fay Moulton (USA)  Nigel Barker (AUS)

Non-canonical Olympic events

In addition to the main 1900 Olympic men's 100 metres, two further 100 m events were held that year. A handicap race attracted 32 athletes from 10 countries and was won by Edmund Minahan, an American semi-finalist in the main 100 m competition, which had taken place five days earlier.[131] A 100 m event for professionals only was held several weeks later. Four entrants are known and the winner was Edgar Bredin, a British former world record holder.[132][133]

A 100 m professionals handicap race is also believed to have been held in 1900. In 1904 a 100-yard dash handicap race was contested and an American, C. Hastedt, was the victor.[134]

These events are no longer considered part of the official Olympic history of the 100 m or the athletics programme in general. Consequently, medals from these races have not been assigned to nations on the all-time medal tables.[134]

Cultural impact
Usain Bolt's 2008 Olympic victory received global media coverage

The 100 metres is typically considered one of the blue ribbon Olympic track and field events, and of the Olympic Games as a whole.[135] The Olympic 100 m finals, particularly the men's, are among the most popular events from any sport at the Olympics – the 2012 Olympic men's 100 metres final was the most watched event at the London Games by British audiences (with 20 million television viewers)[136] while in the United States that event was the third-most viewed Olympic clip.[137]

The high-profile nature of 100 m Olympic finals in some countries has served to encourage participation in sport among the wider public, particularly in short sprinting. Successive generations of athletes cite previous 100 m Olympic champions as the reason for their entering the sport.[138] The history of the event has had particular impact for African-American athletes: Jesse Owens' Olympic 100 m gold was an early example of a black American achieving success on an international stage while Wilma Rudolph's 1960 win inspired many black American women.[139][140] Owens' 100 m victory at the 1936 Berlin Olympics (one of four gold medals he won at the games) helped challenge notions of white supremacy that were popular during that era.[141]

The Olympic 100 metres has been covered by several film documentaries. Chariots of Fire, a 1981 historical drama focusing on Harold Abrahams' victory at the 1924 Paris Olympics, is among the most prominent. The film won four Academy Awards,[142] is often listed among polls for the best sports and Olympics films.,[143][144] and was ranked 19th in the British Film Institute's 100 Best British Films[145] Wilma Rudolph was a central figure in The Grand Olympics (Italian: La grande olimpiade), an Academy-Award nominated documentary about the 1960 Rome Olympics, where Rudolph's 100 m feats earned her the nickname La Gazzella Negra (The Black Gazelle).[146][147] The 1988 Olympic final, featuring Ben Johnson and Carl Lewis has been the topic of documentaries, including ESPN's "9.79*" from the 30 for 30 series,[148] as well as non-fiction books, such as Richard Moore's The Dirtiest Race in History.[100]

Across the sport of track and field, Olympic 100 m champions have often featured on Athlete of the Year lists. Carl Lewis (1984), Evelyn Ashford (1984), Florence Griffith-Joyner (1988) and Usain Bolt (2008) were chosen as Track & Field News Athlete of the Year in the year of their Olympic victories.[149] Lewis, Griffith-Joyner, and Bolt were also awarded the title of IAAF World Athlete of the Year for their Olympic feats.[150]

See also

References
Participation and athlete data
Olympic record progressions
Specific
  1. Athletics Men's 60 metres Medalists. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  2. Hayward, Paul (2012-08-06). Usain Bolt wins men's 100m Olympic final in 9.63 seconds to seal legacy. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  3. Rosenbaum, Mike Women's Olympic Records. About Track and Field. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  4. Olympic Games records. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  5. Athletics Men's 100 metres Medalists. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  6. Athletics Women's 100 metres Medalists. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  7. Competition Rules 2012-2013 Archived 21 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-16.
  8. Athletics - Technical. Team GB. Retrieved on 2014-02-16.
  9. Athletics at the 1960 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  10. Athletics at the 1964 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  11. 100m competition format. London 2012 (archived). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  12. Sprint rule well received. BBC Sport (2003-01-16). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  13. Hinnen, Jerry (2012-07-24). IAAF adjusts false start rule ahead of the Olympics. CBS Sports. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  14. Landells, Steve (2008-08-17). Women's 100m - FINAL. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  15. Athletics at the 1896 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  16. Rosenbaum, Mike. Drug Testing Scandals: Olympic Sprint Controversies. About Track and Field. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  17. Bond, David (2007-10-06). Marion Jones finally confesses to steroid use. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  18. The XXIX Olympic Games - Beijing, China - 8/24 August 2008. IAAF (2008-02-05). Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  19. Sydney 2000 Olympics Entry Standards. IAAF (1999-06-08). Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  20. Olympic Games, Athens. IAAF (2008-02-05). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  21. Entry Standards for London Olympics. IAAF (2011-04-15). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  22. Qualifying Standards. USATF. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  23. Athlete Selection Procedure Form for the Olympic Games. United States Olympic Committee (2012). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  24. Athletics at the 1900 Paris Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  25. Athletics at the 1904 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  26. Athletics at the 1908 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  27. Athletics at the 1912 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  28. Athletics at the 1920 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  29. Athletics at the 1924 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  30. Athletics at the 1928 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  31. Athletics at the 1928 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  32. Athletics at the 1932 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  33. Athletics at the 1932 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  34. Athletics at the 1936 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  35. Athletics at the 1936 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  36. Athletics at the 1948 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  37. Athletics at the 1948 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  38. Athletics at the 1952 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  39. Athletics at the 1952 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  40. Athletics at the 1956 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  41. Athletics at the 1956 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  42. Athletics at the 1960 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  43. Athletics at the 1964 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  44. Athletics at the 1968 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  45. Athletics at the 1968 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  46. Athletics at the 1972 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  47. Athletics at the 1972 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  48. Athletics at the 1976 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  49. Athletics at the 1976 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  50. Athletics at the 1980 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  51. Athletics at the 1980 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  52. Athletics at the 1984 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  53. Athletics at the 1984 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  54. Athletics at the 1988 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  55. Athletics at the 1988 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  56. Athletics at the 1992 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  57. Athletics at the 1992 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  58. Athletics at the 1996 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  59. Athletics at the 1996 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  60. Athletics at the 2000 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  61. Athletics at the 2000 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  62. Olympic Women's 100 metres medallists. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  63. Athletics at the 2004 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  64. Athletics at the 2004 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  65. Athletics at the 2008 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  66. Athletics at the 2008 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  67. Athletics at the 2012 Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  68. Athletics at the 2012 Summer Games: Women's 100 metres. Sports Reference.. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  69. Olympics athletics: Kim Collins 'dropped for visiting wife'. BBC Sport (2012-08-04). Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  70. Bongard, Vanina, et al (2007-06-23). Effects of age and gender on physical performance. AGE (American Aging Association). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  71. "Qualification System – Games of the XXXII Olympiad – Athletics". IAAF.
  72. Katura Marae. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  73. Merlene Ottey-Page. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  74. Betty Robinson. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  75. Linford Christie. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  76. Reggie Walker. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  77. Donald Lippincott. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  78. Alphonse Yanghat. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  79. Fanny Blankers-Koen. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  80. Stefan Burkart. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  81. Saner, Emine (2008-07-30). The gender trap. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  82. Richie, Robert, et al (2008-08-01). Intersex and the Olympic Games. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (vol. 101 no. 8 395-399). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  83. Augustyn, Adam (2012-04-13). Stanisława Walasiewicz. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  84. Heggie, Vanessa (2012-08-02). Sex testing and the Olympics: myths, rumours and confirmation bias. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  85. Sch 12.11.03 Statement of the Stockholm consensus on sex reassignment in sports. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  86. Sears, Edward Seldon (2001). Running Through the Ages (pg. 178-183). McFarland. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  87. Syed, Matthew (2012-08-09). Genetic research shows athletic skill is not a black and white issue. The Australian/The Times. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  88. Entine, Jon (2012-08-12). The DNA Olympics -- Jamaicans Win Sprinting 'Genetic Lottery' -- and Why We Should All Care. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  89. Is it wrong to note 100m winners are always black?. BBC Sport. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  90. Moore, Matthew (2010-07-12). Centre of gravity theory for dominance of black sprinters and white swimmers. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  91. Weinberg, Rick. ESPN.com - ESPN 25 - 53: Johnson flunks drug test, loses gold medal Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ESPN. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  92. Francis, Charlie (1991). Speed Trap. St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-04877-7.
  93. Ormsby, Mary & Hall, Joseph (2008-09-24). Ben Johnson scandal still haunts track world. The Toronto Star. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  94. Crompton, Sarah (2012-10-12). Forgotten heroes who rose above the scandal of drugs. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  95. Macur, Juliet (2011-09-06). Peculiar Doping Case Takes Another Twist. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  96. London 2012 Olympics: Sprinter Tameka Williams sent home over drugs. The Scotsman (2012-07-30). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  97. Doping Rule Violation. IAAF (2009-02-18). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  98. Marion Jones. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  99. Katerina Thanou denied Marion Jones' Olympic 100m gold. BBC Sport (2009-12-08). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  100. Pye, Steven (2013-10-21). Ben Johnson, Carl Lewis and the drama of the Dirtiest Race in History. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  101. Milmo, Cahal (2000-08-22). BBC drops Linford Christie after drugs ban is confirmed . The Independent. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  102. Knight, Tom (2008-04-23). Maurice Greene doping allegations hit IAAF. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  103. Gatlin’s Doping Ban Reduced to 4 Years . The New York Times (2008-01-02). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  104. Jamaican athletes fail drug tests. BBC Sport (2009-07-24). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  105. Franke, Werner & Berendonk, Brigitte (1997). "Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Proceedings of the Doping in Sport Symposium. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  106. Brigitte Berendonk: Doping documents - From Scientific Research to Cheating. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-540-53742-2, p. 122, Fig 6
  107. Six-month ban for sprint champion Shelly-Ann Fraser. BBC Sport (2010-10-06). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  108. The Soviet Doping Plan: Document Reveals Illicit Approach to ’84 Olympics The New York Times
  109. Riach, James (2014-01-06). Jamaica's Sherone Simpson faces anti-doping panel after positive test. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  110. IOC hit back in Ottey doping case. BBC Sport (2000-07-13). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  111. Ottey cleared to run again. BBC Sport (2000-07-03). Retrieved on 2014-02-01.
  112. Canadian Ben Johnson won the 1988 men's 100 metres final, but was stripped of the title after testing positive for steroids in a subsequent doping test.
  113. "1988: Johnson stripped of Olympic gold". BBC News. 27 September 1988.
  114. Marion Jones admitted to having taken performance enhancing drugs prior to the 2000 Summer Olympics. She relinquished her medals to the United States Olympic Committee, and the International Olympic Committee formally stripped her of her medals.
    100 metres
    1. not awarded
    2. Ekaterini Thanou 11.12 and Tayna Lawrence 11.18
    3. Merlene Ottey 11.19
    The IOC did not initially decide to regrade the results, as silver medalist Ekaterini Thanou had herself been subsequently involved in a doping scandal in the run-up to the 2004 Summer Olympics. After two years of deliberation, in late 2009 the IOC decided to upgrade Lawrence and Ottey to silver and bronze respectively, and leave Thanou as a silver medallist, with the gold medal withheld.
  115. Mallon, Bill (2012). TRACK & FIELD ATHLETICS - OLYMPIC RECORD PROGRESSIONS. Track and Field News. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  116. Coffey, Wayne (2012-08-06). Jamaica’s Usain Bolt retains his title as world’s fastest man as he blows past the field to win 100-meter gold in 9.63 seconds. New York Daily News. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  117. Longman, Jere (2012-08-05). In Fastest Field Ever, the World’s Fastest Man Proves It Again. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  118. 100 Metres - men - senior - outdoor. IAAF (2014-02-04). Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  119. 100 Metres - women - senior - outdoor. IAAF (2014-02-04). Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  120. 100 Metres - men - senior - outdoor - 2012. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  121. 100 Metres - men - senior - outdoor - 2008. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  122. 100 Metres - men - senior - outdoor - 2004. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  123. Results The XXX Olympic Games GREAT BRITAIN & N.I. London, GREAT BRITAIN & N.I. 27 JUL 2012 - 12 AUG 2012 100 Metres - women Heats Summary. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  124. Results The XXX Olympic Games GREAT BRITAIN & N.I. London, GREAT BRITAIN & N.I. 27 JUL 2012 - 12 AUG 2012 100 Metres - men Heats Summary. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  125. Usain Bolt wins Olympic 100m gold at London 2012. BBC Sport (2012-08-05). Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  126. Martin, David (2012-08-05). London 2012 - Event Report - Men's 100m Final. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-02-04.
  127. "Men's 100m".
  128. "Women's 100m".
  129. 1906 Athina Summer Games. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  130. Athletics at the 1906 Athina Summer Games: Men's 100 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  131. Athletics at the 1900 Paris Summer Games: Men's 100 metres, Handicap. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-03-22.
  132. Athletics at the 1900 Paris Summer Games: Men's 100 metres, Professionals. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-03-22.
  133. Athletics at the 1896 Athina Summer Games: Men's 400 metres. Sports Reference. Retrieved on 2014-03-22.
  134. Olympic Games (Men). GBR Athletics. Retrieved on 2014-03-22.
  135. London 2012 Athletics Archived 8 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  136. Plunkett, John (2012-08-13). Top 10 Olympics TV events: opening and closing ceremonies dominate. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  137. London Olympics on NBC is Most-Watched Television Event in U.S. History . NBC Press Box (2012-08-14). Retrieved on 2014-01-26.
  138. Whitney, Susan (1996-07-21). `GRACE AND GLORY' GIVES GIRLS EXAMPLES OF GOLD. Deseret News. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  139. Harvey, Randy (1994-11-13). Olympic Legend Wilma Rudolph Dies : Sports: Triple gold medalist who inspired a generation of women's track stars loses battle with brain cancer at 54.. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  140. Horton, Derrin (2013-02-15). LA Dreamers: Our African-American Pioneers – Wilma Rudolph. KTLA5. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  141. Jesse Owens. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  142. Chariots of Fire (1981). The New York Times. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  143. The 50 Greatest Sports Movies. Empire. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  144. Mitchell, Houston (2012-02-20). The 10 best sports movies of all time, No. 10: 'Chariots of Fire'. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  145. The BFI's 100 Best British Films. British Pictures. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  146. La Grande Olimpiade (1961). The New York Times. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  147. Rome celebrates 50th anniversary of hosting the 1960 Olympic Games Archived 19 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Sports Features (2010-08-24). Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  148. 9.79*. ESPN. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  149. History Of T&FN’s Athletes Of The Year Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Track and Field News. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.
  150. IAF Athletes of the Year. IAAF. Retrieved on 2014-01-31.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.