Chinese imperialism

Historically, China has been a major empire in history, and throughout its history, China developed from the northern basin of the Huaxia, which is believed to be between modern Yellow and Yangtze rivers, slowly became a major power from ancient era. To achieve that, various ethnic Han Chinese dynasties had perpetuated the expansions of the nation, until it was unified under the Qin dynasty.[1] However, it was only the Qin dynasty that China truly started its process of expansion into other nations. Qin dynasty's expansionism eventually led to its first contacts with the ancient Viet tribes, and further extended to ancient Koreans, as well as the Xiongnus.[2] The Qin dynasty also set up the milestone for future Imperial expansions of China.

The Han dynasty marked the height of early Chinese expansionism. Under the Han dynasty, China managed to conquer northern Korea and northern Vietnam, annexing several parts of these territories in the process.[3][4] The Han dynasty also managed to expel several nomad tribes and gained control, for sometimes, over what would be modern Xinjiang, though it was mostly symbolic due to unsuitable climate situation and internal turmoil within.[5]

Following the fall of the Han dynasty, Korea was set free of China, leaving only northern Vietnam remained under Chinese control, and the Three Kingdoms era temporarily halted Chinese expansionism. Nonetheless, the Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu managed to extend its territorial gains in some parts under their territorial control.[6] Once the Three Kingdoms ended and establishment of the Jin dynasty, Chinese expansionism stopped becoming the main headline for four centuries, as China was in dire need to consolidate back its borderland following its significant population losses.

The Sui dynasty, which reunified China after another 350 years of divisions, attempted to embark back on expansionism, but four disastrous campaigns to Korea put the dynasty to its end.[7]

The establishment of the Tang dynasty marked the comeback of Chinese expansionism, where it was also considered as the height of China as an ancient superpower.[8] Under the Tang dynasty, China managed to maintain control over northern Vietnam, and returned to Korea.[9] The Chinese Empire also managed to extend its control over Xinjiang and Central Asia, reaching as far west as the Aral Sea and Caspian Sea,[10][11][12] although its rule over frontier regions was not consolidated, as China sought to gain loyalty from the Turkic and Sogdian tribes.[13] At least, for once, the Chinese Empire managed to enroach into the Tibetan territory and occupied Lhasa, until they had to abandon due to difficult climate.[14]

The Tang Chinese expansion was checked following the Battle of Talas in modern-day Kyrgyzstan, when the Chinese Empire was defeated by the Arabs.[15] However, China remained strong enough to process a significant weight until the An Lushan Rebellion that led China to be completely crippled.[16] The weakening of Chinese Empire partly traced from the rebellion, and thus, it weakened the expansion process of China to an insignificant level, as China could not deal with repeated raids and invasions from the Uyghurs and Turkic nomads, as well as the Tibetans; losing territories to both of them as well.[14][17] This was just the slow process of other territorial losses China suffered in the aftermath of the rebellion.

When the Tang dynasty collapsed, China entered the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, and as for the consequence of the repeated instability, the Vietnamese eventually set free from China in 938, delivered a devastating blow to Chinese expansionism. China proper was unified by the Song dynasty, and soon the Song dynasty sought to revive expansionism, and launched an invasion of northern Vietnam in the process, but was repelled by Lê Hoàn. From then, the Song dynasty had struggled to reconsolidate back the borderland and inner territories, as well as repeated wars with Vietnam, the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia.[18][19][20][21] This had prevented the Song dynasty from ever taking any serious military expeditions, and this would stay so until its conquest by the Yuan dynasty in 1279.

The Yuan dynasty was founded by the Mongols in the traditional Chinese style in 1271.[22] The Yuan dynasty was characterized by Sino-Mongol expansionism, and Yuan China undertook attempts to conquer other territories. The Yuan dynasty launched two invasions of Burma, with the first invasion delivering a devastating blow to the Pagan Kingdom and effectively resulted in its collapse.[23] Furthermore, the Yuan dynasty also managed to conquer Korea. The Yuan dynasty also had great success in conquering Tibet, thus incorporating Tibet into Chinese territory for the first time in history.[24] However, the Yuan dynasty had been unsuccessful in its attempt to conquer Vietnam and its naval expeditions to invade Java and Japan had disastrous results, eventually leading to the end of Sino-Mongol expansionist desires.[23][25][26][27][28]

Following the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, the newly-established Ming dynasty was initially reluctant to embark on expansionism due to destruction from rebellions in the waning years of the Yuan dynasty. The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, was openly against expansionism and insisted only on a pacifist approach.[29] He specifically warned future Emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in military campaigns for glory and conquest.[30] However, once Hongwu died, the reign of Yongle saw China attempted to return to expansionism, by launching an invasion to Vietnam, eventually leading to the fourth Chinese domination. However, the old warning by Hongwu turned to be a prediction, as Vietnam proved to be a bone on China's expansionism, eventually led to its eventual defeat in the Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động and the collapse of Chinese rule 20 years later.[31][32][33] Following its failure to consolidate its rule over Vietnam, the Ming dynasty started to concentrate only in internal affairs, and refused to make further interventions or expeditions, except for naval expeditions and trades.

The Qing dynasty was a Manchu-ruled dynasty, descended from the Jurchens which founded the Jin dynasty earlier. The dynasty embraced Chinese expansionism. By the late 19th century, in response to competition with other states, the Qing government of China attempted to exert direct control of its frontier areas by conquest or, if already under military control, conversion into provinces.

The ability of Qing China to project power into Central Asia came about because of two changes, one social and one technological. The social change was that under the Qing dynasty, from 1642, the Chinese military forces were organized around cavalry which was more suited for power projection than prior Chinese infantry. The technological change was advances in artillery which negated the military advantage that the people of the steppe had with their cavalry. The Dzungar Khanate was the last great independent nomadic power on the steppe of Central Asia. The Dzungars were deliberately exterminated in a brutal campaign during the Dzungar genocide by Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols. It has been estimated that more than a million people were slaughtered, and it took generations for it to recover.[34] The Qing ruling family Aisin Gioro was supportive of Tibetan Buddhism and many in the ruling class adopted the religion.

The Qing dynasty was seen to be the return of Chinese expansionist policies. Under the Qing rule, China expanded beyond the Great Wall and started to annex more territories in process. The Qing invaded Korea, managed to conquer Mongolia, and also annexed modern territories of Xinjiang and Tibet as well.[35][36][37][38][39] The Qing also managed to extend its control into Central Asia for once more, mostly concentrated in what would be today Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[40][41] The Qing also destroyed the Kingdom of Tungning of Koxinga, and annexed Taiwan as well.[42][43] This marked for the first time, China managed to directly control Xinjiang, Taiwan, Tibet, Central Asia and Mongolia. China also marked its claims far to Sakhalin, even though the Qing didn't manage to control it; or even to Kashmir where it fought a bitter war against the Sikhs.[44]

Ming loyalists led by Koxinga invaded Taiwan and expelled Dutch colonialists from the island during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia and founded the Chinese Kingdom of Tungning. The Ming loyalists quickly moved to replace the institutions and culture of Dutch colonial rule with Han Chinese colonial rule. Language and religious institutions left by the Dutch were closed and replaced with Confucian temples and Chinese language schools for both Han Chinese and aboriginals. Officials encouraged new immigration of Han Chinese from China into territory further inland, turning aboriginal lands into new farmland.[45] After fighting between the Ming loyalists and the Qing during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the Qing attacked the Kingdom of Tungning. the Qing won the Battle of Penghu and the Ming loyalists submitted to Qing rule. Tungning was annexed as part of Fujian province. The Qing were "reluctant colonizers" but became convinced of Taiwan's value to their empire due to the threat the island posed if used as a base by rival powers, and by its abundant resources.[46] The Qing turned Taiwan into its own province in 1885, after Japanese interest and a defeated French invasion attempt.

After the British expedition to Tibet in the waning days of the Qing dynasty, the Qing responded by sending Zhao Erfeng to further integrate Tibet into China. He succeeded in abolishing the powers of the Tibetan local leaders in Kham and appointing Chinese magistrates in their places by 1909–10. Qing forces were also sent to Ü-Tsang in 1910 to establish a direct control over Tibet proper, though a province was never established in this area.

The Qing campaign against Burma (Myanmar) (1765–1769) was its most disastrous and costly frontier war. It ended in a military defeat but the Qing rulers could not accept Burma as an equal, and when diplomatic relations were resumed in 1790, the Qing court considered it a restoration of Chinese suzerainty.[47]

When the Qing collapsed in 1912, the newly-established Republic of China found itself in dire need situation to protect its newly-acquired border; both Tibet and Outer Mongolia declared their independence from China, but they were not recognized by the Republic of China.[48] Therefore, the Republic of China focused its efforts on consolidating their control over Chinese territories and refused to embrace expansionist policy. The Republic of China, however, faced numerous pressure from the expansionist Empire of Japan in 1915, with the Twenty-One Demands caused public uproars.[49] It also faced strong opposition from the Soviet Union, which also embraced expansionist policy, leading to the border conflict of 1929.[50] The Soviets and Japanese meddling into Chinese affairs and the lack of compromises from Western leaders over Japanese and Russian expansionism made the work difficult, as Russia had interests with regard to Xinjiang, and Japanese invasion in northeast China at 1931.[51][52] On the same time, the Chinese Civil War also prevented any attempts of a possible Chinese expansion.[53]

When the World War II broke out, nonetheless Chiang Kai-shek had sought to restore Chinese influence. Being a major ally and one of the Big Four, Chiang wanted to restore Chinese influence in Korea and Southeast Asia, in a vision for a new Asia under Chiang's command.[54][55] Once the World War II ended, Chiang Kai-shek started trying to implement the project, by sending troops to occupy northern Vietnam.[56] Yet, as the Chinese Civil War resumed, it had dented Chiang's desire, and he had to retreat most of his army to fight against the now-stronger communist force. Eventually, the Republic of China lost the war and was forced to retreat to Taiwan where it continues to rule today. The expansionist policy was succeeded by the communists which later proclaimed the People's Republic of China.

Following the de facto end of the Chinese Civil War, Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China, and, at the first stage, styled his rule after Joseph Stalin. China temporarily abandoned the irredentist idea in order to focus on internationalism promoted by the communist world. Thus, the early PRC saw China fought in Korean War and Vietnam War, both to help the communist North Korea and North Vietnam.[57][58]

However, this didn't mean China had given up the idea of expansionism. China started to reconquer Xinjiang, absorbing the then-Second East Turkestan Republic with help from Stalin, before conquering Tibet at 1950 and crushed a later uprising in blood.[59][60][61]

Following Dalai Lama's escape to India, China and India fought a bitter border war at 1962, where China gained Aksai Chin and stampeded into Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet in China), before retreating from the latter over increasing turmoils.[62] Before that, China also sought to takeover Taiwan, then under the authority of the rivalling Republic of China, causing the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, but was unsuccessful due to American threat in response.[63] China also sought to take over Sikkim in 1967, but it was unsuccessful.[64] A Chinese map published in 1961 showed China claiming territories in Bhutan, Nepal and the Kingdom of Sikkim (now a state of India).[65] Incursions by Chinese soldiers and Tibetan herdsmen allying with Chinese government also provoked tensions in Bhutan. Imposing a cross-border trade embargo and closing the border, Bhutan established extensive military ties with India.[65][66] After these conflicts, the Cultural Revolution initiated by Mao Zedong had halted Chinese expansionism as China suffered heavy devastation following the revolution.

Once the Cultural Revolution ended, China started to embrace back expansionism. In 1974, China launched its first naval expedition to invade Paracel Islands and defeated the 50-strong South Vietnamese garrison.[67] The event was the first sign of returning Chinese expansionism in China.[67] Tensions triggered between China and later unified communist Vietnam led to the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979. Although this was a short war, it is still seen as a sign of Chinese expansionism in Vietnam.[68] China and Vietnam later fought another bitter skirmish in South China Sea at 1988, resulting in China's consolidation of some occupied islands.[69]

The annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China (called the "Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" by the Chinese government[73][74][75] and the "Chinese invasion of Tibet" by the Tibetan Government in Exile[76][77]) were the series of events from 1950 to 1959 by which the People's Republic of China (PRC) gained control of Tibet. These regions came under the control of China after attempts by the Government of Tibet to gain international recognition, efforts to modernize its military, negotiations between the Government of Tibet and the PRC, a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the eventual acceptance of the Seventeen Point Agreement by the Government of Tibet under Chinese pressure in October 1951.[78][79] In some Western opinions, the incorporation of Tibet into China is viewed as an annexation.[80][81] The Government of Tibet remained in place under the authority of China until the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when the Dalai Lama was forced to flee into exile in India and after which the Government of Tibet and Tibetan social structures were dissolved.[82]

Five Fingers of Tibet is the Chinese strategy originally propounded by Mao Zedong to annex Ladakh (India), Nepal, Sikkim (India), Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh (India).[83] According to the Five Fingers of Tibet strategy, Tibet is considered as China's right hand palm, with five fingers on its periphery: Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh, with the ultimate objective to assert China's claim and authority over these regions.[84][85][86]

With the 1978 Chinese economic reform launched by Deng Xiaoping, China has increased its political stance, its influence and its power abroad.[87] On one side, China remains deeply neutral and not involving itself in any conflict, and the land borders are stable. China has increased its influence, while using military and economic wealth and claims to island territories that have caused anxiety in neighbors to the east, such as the Philippines and Japan.[88][89]

The South China Sea disputes involve both island and maritime claims of China over several neighboring sovereign states in the region, namely Brunei, the Republic of China (ROC/Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam.[90][91] The disputes are over islands, reefs, banks, and other features in the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin and the waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands.[92]

Jeffrey Reeves (2018) argues that since 2012, Xi Jinping has demonstrated "a concerted imperialist policy" towards its developing neighbor states to the south and west, especially Mongolia,[93] Kazakhstan,[94][95] Tajikistan,[96][97] Kyrgyzstan,[98][99] Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal,[100][101] Myanmar, Cambodia,[102][103][104] Laos,[105][106] and Vietnam.[107] Chinese overseas populations are also said to play a disproportionate role in Southeast Asian economies in what is referred to as the bamboo network.