Monarchy of China

China was a monarchy from prehistoric times up to 1912 CE, when the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. The succession of mythological monarchs of China were non-hereditary. Dynastic rule began in circa 2070 BCE when Yu the Great and his son Qi established the Xia dynasty, and lasted until 1912 CE when dynastic rule collapsed together with the monarchical system.[1]

Approximate territories ruled by the Chinese monarchy throughout history
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC
Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC
Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin 221–207 BC
Han 202 BC – 220 AD
  Western Han
  Xin
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin 266–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui 581–618
Tang 618–907
  (Wu Zhou 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–979		 Liao 916–1125
Song 960–1279
  Northern Song Western Xia
  Southern Song Jin Western Liao
Yuan 1271–1368
Ming 1368–1644
Qing 1636–1912
MODERN
Republic of China on mainland 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present
Related articles

The monarchy of China took the form of absolute monarchy, even though the actual power of the ruler was dependent upon his/her ability to consolidate the rule and various other factors.[lower-alpha 1] During periods of political disunity, China was under the rule of competing dynasties, each ruling a part of China and claiming exclusive Chinese politico-cultural orthodoxy; in such cases, more than one Chinese monarchy existed simultaneously. Throughout Chinese history, there were monarchs of both ethnic Han and non-Han origins.[4]

Domains of the Chinese monarchy

While the Chinese monarchy was originally established along the Yellow River and Yangtze River in China proper, various Chinese dynasties expanded beyond the region to encompass other domains.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]

At various points in time, the Chinese monarchy exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[5][6][7] Taiwan,[8] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[9][10] Sakhalin,[11][12] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[10][13] Vietnam,[14][18] Tibet,[9][10] Xinjiang,[15] as well as parts of Central Asia,[10][11] the Korean Peninsula,[16] Afghanistan,[17][19] and Siberia.[10]

The Chinese monarchy reached its largest territorial extent under either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[20][21][22][23][24] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan dynasty: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast.[25][26][27] In comparison, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined. The total area under the control of the Qing dynasty amounted to more than 13 million km2 at its peak.[28][29][30]

Apart from exercising direct control over the Chinese realm, the Chinese monarchy also maintained hegemony through the Chinese tributary system.[31] The Chinese tributary system had its roots during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century CE when the Sinocentric order collapsed.[32][33]

Fall of the Chinese monarchy
Main articles: 1911 Revolution and Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor
See also: Xinhai Lhasa turmoil, Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang, and Mongolian Revolution of 1911

On 10 October 1911, the Wuchang Uprising broke out in modern Wuhan, marking the start of the Xinhai Revolution.[34] Led by the Tongmenghui, the predecessor of the modern Kuomintang, the Xinhai Revolution soon spread to other parts of China. On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed by Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing.[35] On 12 February 1912, the Xuantong Emperor abdicated, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy altogether.[34]

The National Day of the Republic of China, celebrated today in the Taiwan Area, commemorates the anniversary of the Wuchang Uprising.[36] It was also celebrated officially in mainland China between 1912 CE and 1949 CE prior to the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan.

Monarchism in China

During and after the Xinhai Revolution, there were various attempts at reviving the Chinese monarchy. All these attempts ultimately ended in failure.

Emperorship by Duke Yansheng or Marquis of Extended Grace
See also: Duke Yansheng and Marquis of Extended Grace

During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius and the holder of Duke Yansheng, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[37] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[38] Both suggestions were rejected.

Empire of China
Main article: Empire of China (1915–1916)

In 1915 CE, Yuan Shikai proclaimed the Empire of China.[39] It soon sparked the National Protection War and the empire was abolished after three months.

Manchu Restoration
Main article: Manchu Restoration

In 1917 CE, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun reinstalled Puyi to the Chinese throne.[40] This attempt at restoring the Qing dynasty, known as the Manchu Restoration, lasted only 12 days.

Manchukuo
Main article: Manchukuo

The Japanese puppet state Manchukuo was established in Northeast China in 1932 CE.[41] This regime subsequently became a monarchy with Puyi as the emperor in 1934 CE. Manchukuo collapsed in 1945 CE following the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the unconditional surrender of Japan.

Pretenders to the Chinese throne
Further information: Head of the House of Aisin Gioro
See also: Head of the former Chinese imperial clan

The following is a list of pretenders to the abolished Chinese throne from the Aisin Gioro clan, the ruling house of the Qing dynasty and the Manchukuo.[lower-alpha 2]

Pretender Period Remarks
Aisin Gioro Puyi
愛新覺羅·溥儀		 1912–1917 CE,
1917–1934 CE,
1945–1967 CE		 Emperor of the Qing dynasty (1908–1912 CE).
Restored emperor of the Qing dynasty (1917 CE).
Emperor of the Manchukuo (1934–1945 CE).
Aisin Gioro Yuyan
愛新覺羅·毓嵒		 1950–1999 CE Rival pretender.
Aisin Gioro Pujie
愛新覺羅·溥傑		 1967–1994 CE
Aisin Gioro Puren
愛新覺羅·溥任		 1994–2015 CE
Jin Yuzhang
金毓嶂		 2015 CE–present

See also

Notes
  1. On 3 November 1911, the Qing dynasty issued the constitutional Nineteen Creeds (憲法重大信條十九條) which limited the power of the emperor, marking the transition to a constitutional monarchy.[2][3] The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown three months later.
  2. Many members and descendants of the Aisin Gioro family adopted the surname Jin (金) after the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

References
  1. Ebrey, Patricia; Liu, Kwang-Ching (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. p. 10. ISBN 9780521124331.
  2. Gao, Quanxi; Zhang, Wei; Tian, Feilong (2015). The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China. p. 135. ISBN 9783662456378.
  3. To, Michael (2017). China's Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics. p. 54.
  4. Skutsch, Carl (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. p. 287. ISBN 9781135193881.
  5. Brødsgaard, Kjeld (2008). Hainan – State, Society, and Business in a Chinese Province. p. 11. ISBN 9781134045471.
  6. Wong, Koon-kwai (2009). Hong Kong, Macau and the Pearl River Delta: A Geographical Survey. pp. 241–242. ISBN 9789882004757.
  7. Zhang, Wei Bin (2006). Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence. p. 3. ISBN 9781594546006.
  8. Hughes, Christopher (2013). Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society. p. 21. ISBN 9781134727551.
  9. Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). China: A New Cultural History. p. 421. ISBN 9780231528184.
  10. Lockard, Craig (2020). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History. p. 260. ISBN 9780357365472.
  11. Gan, Chunsong (2019). A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture. p. 24. ISBN 9789811388675.
  12. Westad, Odd (2012). Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750. Basic Books. p. 11. qing dynasty sakhalin.
  13. Sanders, Alan (2003). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. p. v. ISBN 9780810866010.
  14. Paige, Jeffrey (1978). Agrarian Revolution. p. 278. ISBN 9780029235508.
  15. Clarke, Michael (2011). Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History. p. 16. ISBN 9781136827068.
  16. Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. p. 25. ISBN 9781469102443.
  17. Tanner, Harold (2009). China: A History. p. 167. ISBN 9780872209152.
  18. Lockard (2020). p. 262.
  19. Hsu (2012). p. 268.
  20. Bauch, Martin; Schenk, Gerrit (2019). The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. p. 153. ISBN 9783110660784.
  21. Ruan, Jiening; Zhang, Jie; Leung, Cynthia (2015). Chinese Language Education in the United States. p. 9. ISBN 9783319213088.
  22. Wei, Chao-hsin (1988). The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. p. 17.
  23. Adler, Philip; Pouwels, Randall (2011). World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. p. 373. ISBN 9781133171065.
  24. Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. p. 1. ISBN 9780674054554.
  25. History of the World Map by Map. 2018. p. 133. ISBN 9780241379189.
  26. Tan, Qixiang, ed. (1982). "元时期全图（一）". The Historical Atlas of China.
  27. Tan, Qixiang, ed. (1982). "元时期全图（二）". The Historical Atlas of China.
  28. Wang, Fei-ling (2017). The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power. p. 68. ISBN 9781438467504.
  29. Gao, James (2009). Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949). p. xxxvi. ISBN 9780810863088.
  30. Yang, Yi (2018). 一本書讀懂亞洲史. p. 145. ISBN 9789863921165.
  31. Kavalski, Emilian (2014). Asian Thought on China's Changing International Relations. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9781137299338.
  32. Rand, Christopher (2017). Military Thought in Early China. p. 142. ISBN 9781438465180.
  33. Brown, Kerry (2018). China's 19th Party Congress: Start Of A New Era. p. 197. ISBN 9781786345936.
  34. Rošker, Jana; Suhadolnik, Nataša (2014). Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change. p. 1. ISBN 9781443867726.
  35. Elleman, Bruce (2005). Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. p. 149. ISBN 9781134610082.
  36. Copper, John (2010). The A to Z of Taiwan (Republic of China). p. 109. ISBN 9780810876446.
  37. Rošker, Jana; Suhadolnik, Nataša (2014). Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change. p. 74. ISBN 9781443867726.
  38. Aldrich, M. A. (2008). The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages. p. 176. ISBN 9789622097773.
  39. Schillinger, Nicholas (2016). The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers. p. 176. ISBN 9781498531696.
  40. Hao, Shiyuan (2019). China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues. p. 51. ISBN 9789813295193.
  41. Wells, Anne (2009). The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan. p. 167. ISBN 9780810870260.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.