Krishnaism

Bala Krishna with his mother Devaki by Marianne Stokes.

Early Krishnaism started with the cult of the heroic Vasudeva Krishna,[10][11] which, several centuries later, was amalgamated with the cult of the "divine child" Bala Krishna and the Gopala traditions.[12] While Vishnu is attested already in the Rigveda, the development of Krishnaism appears to take place via the worship of Vasudeva in the final centuries BCE. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini (4th century BCE) who, in his Astadhyayi, explained the word vasudevaka as a bhakta (devotee) of Vasudeva.[13][14][15][16] At that time, Vāsudeva was already considered as a demi-God, as he appears in Pāṇini's writings in conjunction with Arjuna as an object of worship, since Pāṇini explains that a vāsudevaka is a devotee (bhakta) of Vāsudeva.[14][17][18]

A sect which flourished with the decline of Vedism was centred on Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas.[19] Worship of Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas, took sectarian form as the Pancaratra and earlier as Bhagavata religions. This sect has at a later stage merged with the sect of Narayana.[5]

The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic.[20]

By the time of its incorporation into the Mahabharata canon during the early centuries CE, Krishnaism began to affiliate itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to orthodoxy, in particular aligning itself with Rigvedic Vishnu.[4] At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God.[19] The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism.[21]

Thirumal's statue in Sundaravarada Perumal temple.

According to Friedhelm Hardy,[note 3] there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.[22] South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery.[24] Early writings in Dravidian culture such as Manimekalai and the Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms.[24] Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars.[25]

Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Thirumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.[26] The alvars, whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the avatars.[26] Yet, according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon.[22]

By the Early Medieval period, Krishnaism had risen to a major current of Vaishnavism.[4]

Vaishnavism in the 8th century came into contact with the Advaita doctrine of Adi Shankara. Vasudeva has been interpreted by Adi Shankara, using the earlier Vishnu Purana as a support, as meaning the "supreme self" or Vishnu, dwelling everywhere and in all things,[27] although many other schools of Hindu philosophy have a different interpretation of this key concept. There were counter-movements in South India to Shankara's theory of Brahman in particular, Ramanuja in the 11th century and Madhva in the 13th, building on the devotional tradition of the alvars (Shri Vaishnavas).

Jayadeva recites the mantra to Radha-Krishna.

Holy statue of Nimbarkacharya, a founder of the first Bhakti-era Krishnaite sampradaya.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), believed to be an expansion of Krishna in the mood of Radha.

The Bhakti movement of high and late medieval Hinduism emerges in the 9th or 10th century, and is based on the Bhagavata Purana, Narada Bhakti Sutra, and other scriptures. In North India, Krishnaism gave rise to various late Medieval movements. Early Bhakti Krishnaite pioneers include the Telugu-origin philosopher Nimbarkacharya (12th or 13th century CE) and his friend, poet from Odisha Jayadeva, an author of Gitagovinda. Both promote Radha Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms.[2][28][29] Since 15th century in Bengal and Assam flourished Tantric variaty of Krishnaism—Vaishnava-Sahajiya of Bengali poet Chandidas—where Krishna is the inner divine aspect of man and Radha is the aspect of woman.[30]

The most emerged guru 15th–16th centuries—Telugu by origin Vallabhacharya, Sankardev in Assam, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Bengal. They started their own schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya (a.k.a. Kumara sampradaya, the first),[31] Pushtimarg sampradaya,[32] Gaudiya Vaishnavism (a.k.a. Chaitanya sampradaya, including Manipuri Vaishnavism),[33] with Krishna and his consort/shakti Radha as the supreme god,[note 4][note 5] [note 6][37][38] and Ekasarana Dharma by Sankardev without Radha[39]

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Warkari tradition such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath, and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[40] Before the Warkari sampradaya, Krishna devotion (Pancha-Krishna) became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of Mahanubhava Panth founded by 13th-century Gujarati-Marathi acharya Chakradhara.[41]

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a most prominent missionary of Krishnaism in the West.

The cult of Krishna later evolved in modern times by Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya in early 19th century, also worshipped Krishna as God himself (see his Shikshapatri),[42]

Within Gaudiya Vaishnavism in 20th century was establushed the reform Gaudiya Math and its worldwide successor, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (a.k.a. Hare Krishna Movement), founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[2]

There is the number of neo-Hindu Krishnaite organisations only partially related to traditional sampradayas, such as Jagadguru Kripalu Parishat, Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog, and Science of Identity Foundation.

The term "Krishnaism" has been used to describe the sects focused on Krishna, while "Vishnuism/Vaishnavism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than a transcended Supreme Being.[43][44] Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being, manifested himself as Krishna, while Krishnaism asserts Krishna to be Svayam Bhagavan (Sanskrit: "The Fortunate and Blessed One Himself"), the Para Brahman in human form,[45] that manifested himself as Vishnu. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses.[46] In common language the term Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism.

Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism, after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana, etc.[note 7]

Radha Krishna

Krishna-Radha ardhanari—depicted as half-male and half-female.

Vaishnavism is a monotheistic religion, centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. It is sometimes described as a"polymorphic monotheism", since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. In Krishnaism this deity is Krishna, sometimes referred as intimate deity - as compared with the numerous four-armed forms of Narayana or Vishnu.[48]

Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism. Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.[49]

Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hindu philosophical and theological traditions, where it is believed that God appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires. These forms include the different avataras of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions of the Svayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community.[50][51] Many of the Hindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all.[52]

Maha-mantra Hare Krishna in Devanagari script.

A mantra is a sacred utterance. The most basic and known it among the Krishnaits—Mahā-mantra ("Great Mantra")—is a 16-word mantra in Sanskrit which is mentioned in the Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad:[75][76]

Hare Rāma Hare Rāma
Rāma Rāma Hare Hare
Hare Kṛṣṇa Hare Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Hare Hare

— Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad

Its variaty within Gaudiya Vaishnavism looks as:

Hare Kṛṣṇa Hare Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Hare Hare
Hare Rāma Hare Rāma
Rāma Rāma Hare Hare

The Maha-mantra Radhe Krishna of Nimbarka Sampradaya is as follows:

Rādhe Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Kṛṣṇa
Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Rādhe
Rādhe Shyām Rādhe Shyām
Shyām Shyām Rādhe Rādhe

Potra Kund in Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex, Mathura, is believed to have been used for the first bath of child Krishna after his birth.[77]

Warkari pilgrims, Maharashtra.

Vrindavana, Uttar Pradesh, is often considered to be a holy place by majority of traditions of Krishnaism. It's a center of Krishna worship and the area includes places like Govardhana and Gokula associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of bhaktas or devotees of Krishna visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life on Earth.[64]

On the other hand, Goloka is considered the eternal abode of Krishna, Svayam Bhagavan according to some Vaishnavite schools, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism and the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. The scriptural basis for this is taken in Brahma Samhita and Bhagavata Purana.[78]