List of kings of Babylon

King of Babylon
	šar Bābili
	Reconstruction of a typical c. 16th/15th–10th century BC Babylonian king
Details
First monarch	Sumu-abum
Last monarch	Nabonidus; (last native king); Shamash-eriba or Nidin-Bel; (last native rebel); Phraates IV; (last accorded title);
Formation	c. 1894 BC
Abolition	539 BC; (last native king); 484 BC or 336/335 BC; (last native rebel); c. 2 BC; (last accorded title);
Appointer	Divine right and the Babylonian priesthood

The king of Babylon (Akkadian: šar Bābili) was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and its kingdom, Babylonia, which existed as an independent realm from the 19th century BC to its fall in the 6th century BC. For the majority of its existence as an independent kingdom, Babylon ruled most of southern Mesopotamia, composed of the ancient regions of Sumer and Akkad. The city experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylonian kings rose to dominate large parts of the Ancient Near East: the First Babylonian Empire (or Old Babylonian Empire, 1894–1595 BC according to the middle chronology) and the Second Babylonian Empire (or Neo-Babylonian Empire, 626–539 BC).

The title šar Bābili was applied to Babylonian rulers relatively late, from the 8th century BC and onwards. Preceding Babylonian kings had typically used the title viceroy of Babylon (Akkadian: šakkanakki Bābili) out of reverence for Babylon's patron deity Marduk, considered the city's formal "king". Other titles frequently used by the Babylonian monarchs included the geographical titles king of Sumer and Akkad (Akkadian: šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) and king of Karduniash (Akkadian: šar Karduniaš), "Karduniash" being the name applied to Babylon's kingdom by the city's third dynasty (the Kassites).

Many of Babylon's kings were of foreign origin. Throughout the city's nearly two-thousand year history, it was ruled by kings of native Babylonian, Amorite, Kassite, Assyrian, Elamite, Chaldean, Persian, Hellenic and Parthian origin. A king's cultural and ethnic background does not appear to have been important for the Babylonian perception of kingship, the important matter instead being whether the king was capable of executing the duties traditionally ascribed to the Babylonian king; establishing peace and security, upholding justice, honoring civil rights, refraining from unlawful taxation, respecting religious traditions, constructing temples and providing gifts to the gods in them as well as maintaining cultic order. Babylonian revolts of independence directed against Assyrian and Persian rulers probably had little to do with said rulers not being Babylonians and more to do with the rulers rarely visiting Babylon and failing to partake in the city's rituals and traditions.

Babylon's last native king was Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 BC. Nabonidus's rule was ended through Babylon being conquered by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Though early Achaemenid kings continued to place importance on Babylon and continued using the title "king of Babylon", later Achaemenid rulers being ascribed the title is probably only something done by the Babylonians themselves, with the kings having abandoned it. Though it is doubtful if any later monarchs claimed the title, Babylonian scribes continued to accord it to the rulers of the empires that controlled Babylonia until the time of the Parthian Empire, when Babylon was gradually abandoned. Though Babylonia never regained independence after the Achaemenid conquest, there were several attempts by Babylonians to drive out their foreign rulers and re-establish their kingdom, possibly as late as 336 BC under the rebel Nidin-Bel.

Titles

Kings Marduk-nadin-ahhe (r. c. 1099–1082 BC, left), Marduk-zakir-shumi I (r. 800s BC, center) and Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC, right), showing how Babylonian royal attire changed over time

Throughout the city's long history, various titles were used to designate the ruler of Babylon and its kingdom, the most common[1] of which were "viceroy/governor of Babylon" (šakkanakki Bābili),[2] "king of Karduniash" (šar Karduniaš)[3] and "king of Sumer and Akkad" (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi).[4] "viceroy/governor of Babylon" emphasizes the political dominion of the city, whereas the other two refer to southern Mesopotamia as a whole.[1] Use of one of the titles did not mean that the others could not be used simultaneously. For instance, the Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III, who conquered Babylon in 729 BC, used all three.[5]

The reason why "governor/viceroy of Babylon" was used rather than "king of Babylon" (šar Bābili)[6] for much of the city's history was that the true king of Babylon was formally considered to be its national deity, Marduk. By being titled as šakkanakki rather than šar, the Babylonian king thus showed reverence to the city's god. This practice was ended by the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib, who in 705 BC took the title šar Bābili rather than šakkanakki Bābili, something which alongside various other perceived offences contributed to widespread negative reception of the king in Babylonia.[7] Sennacherib's immediate successors, including his son Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) typically used šakkanakki Bābili,[8] though there are examples of Esarhaddon and Esarhaddon's successor Shamash-shum-ukin (r. 668–648 BC) using šar Bābili as well.[9]

"King of Babylon" was then used for all following kings interchangeably with "governor/viceroy of Babylon". It was used by the Neo-Babylonian kings,[10] and by the early Achaemenid Persian rulers.[6] The Achaemenids used the title king of Babylon and king of the Lands until it was gradually abandoned by Xerxes I in 481 BC after he had to deal with numerous Babylonian revolts.[11] The last Achaemenid king whose inscriptions use this title was Artaxerxes I, the successor of Xerxes I.[12] Later monarchs likely rarely (if at all) used the title, but the rulers of Mesopotamia continued to be accorded it for centuries by the Babylonians themselves, as late as the Parthian period. The Parthian kings were styled in inscriptions as LUGAL (the inscription of šar).[13] The standard Parthian formula, applied for the last few kings mentioned in Akkadian-language sources, was "ar-šá-kam lugal.lugal.meš" (Aršákam šar šarrāni, "Arsaces, king of kings").[14] The final Babylonian documents that mention and name a king are the astronomical diaries LBAT 1184 and LBAT 1193,[14] written during the reign of the Parthian king Phraates IV (r. 37–2 BC), dated to 11 BC and 5 BC, respectively.[15]

The title "king of Sumer and Akkad" was introduced during the Third Dynasty of Ur, centuries before Babylon was founded, and allowed rulers to connect themselves to the culture and legacy of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations,[16] as well as lay claim on the political hegemony achieved during the ancient Akkadian Empire. Furthermore, the title was a geographical one in that southern Mesopotamia was typically divided into regions called Sumer (the southern regions) and Akkad (the north), meaning that "king of Sumer and Akkad" referred to rule over the entire country.[17] Alongside "king of Babylon", "king of Sumer and Akkad" was used by Babylonian monarchs until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC.[4] The title was also used by Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon in 539 BC.[18][19][20]

"King of Karduniash" was introduced during Babylon's third dynasty, when the city and southern Mesopotamia as a whole was ruled by the Kassites. Karduniaš was the Kassite name for the kingdom centered on Babylon and its territory.[17] The title continued being used long after the Kassites had lost control of Babylon, used for instance as late as by the native Babylonian king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (r. c. 900–888 BC)[21] and by Esarhaddon.[8]

Role and legitimacy

The Statue of Marduk as depicted on a 9th century BC cylinder seal

The Babylonian kings derived their right to rule from divine appointment by Babylon's patron deity Marduk and through consecration by the city's priests.[22] Marduk's main cult image (often conflated with the god himself), the Statue of Marduk, was prominently used in the coronation rituals for the kings, who received their crowns "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the deity.[11] The king's rule and his role as Marduk's vassal on Earth were reaffirmed annually at this time of year, when the king entered the Esagila alone on the fifth day of the New Year's Festival each year and met with the chief priest. The chief priest removed the regalia from the king, slapped him across the face and made him kneel before Marduk's statue. The king would then tell the statue that he had not oppressed his people and that he had maintained order throughout the year, whereafter the chief priest would reply (on behalf of Marduk) that the king could continue to enjoy divine support for his rule, returning the royal regalia.[23] Through being a patron of Babylon's temples, the king extended his generosity towards the Mesopotamian gods, who in turn empowered his rule and lent him their authority.[22]

Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honor civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. None of the king's responsibilities and duties required him to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian; any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could adopt the title,[22] though they might then require the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes. Ethnicity and culture does not appear to have been important in the Babylonian perception of kingship; many foreign kings enjoyed support from the Babylonians and several native kings were despised.[24] That the rule of some foreign kings was not supported by the Babylonians probably has little to do with their ethnic or cultural background.[25] What was always more important was whether the ruler was capable of executing the duties of the Babylonian king properly, in line with established Babylonian tradition.[26] The frequent Babylonian revolts against foreign rulers, such as the Assyrians and the Persians, can most likely be attributed to the Assyrian and Persian kings being perceived as failing in their duties as Babylonian monarchs. Since their capitals were elsewhere, they did not regularly partake in the city's rituals (meaning that they could not be celebrated in the same way that they traditionally were) and they rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through constructing temples and presenting cultic gifts to the city's gods. This failure might have been interpreted as the kings thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.[27]

Babylonian dynasties

As with other monarchies, the kings of Babylon are grouped into a series of royal dynasties, a practice started by the ancient Babylonians themselves in their king lists.[28][29] The generally accepted Babylonian dynasties should not be understood as familial groupings in the same vein as the term is commonly used by historians for ruling families in later kingdoms and empires. Though Babylon's first dynasty did form a dynastic grouping where all monarchs were related, the dynasties of the first millennium BC, notably the Dynasty of E, did not constitute a series of coherent familial relationships at all. In a Babylonian sense, the term dynasty, rendered as palû or palê, related to a sequence of monarchs from the same ethnic or tribal group (i.e. the Kassite dynasty), the same region (i.e. the dynasties of the Sealand) or the same city (i.e. the dynasties of Babylon and Isin).[29] In some cases, kings known to be genealogically related, such as Eriba-Marduk and his grandson Marduk-apla-iddina II, were separated into different dynasties, the former designated as belonging to the Dynasty of E and the latter as belonging to the (Third) Sealand dynasty.[30]

Later historians have provided varying dynastic arrangements of the kings. The list of kings below follows the dynastic arrangement of kings presented in Chen (2020),[31] with a longer and more inclusive Dynasty of E based on Beaulieu (2018).[32] Other recent interpretations, as well as the version used in the ancient Babylonian King List A, are presented in the table below, with the first and last kings attributed to each dynasty.


Babylonian King List A[28][33]	Leick (2010)[34]	Van De Mieroop (2016)[35]	Beaulieu (2018)[32]	Chen (2020)[31]
palê Babili ("Dynasty of Babylon") Sumu-abum — Samsu-Ditana	First Dynasty of Babylon c. 1894–1595 BC Sumu-abum — Samsu-Ditana	First Dynasty of Babylon 1880–1595 BC Sumu-abum — Samsu-Ditana	I. First Dynasty of Babylon 1880–1595 BC Sumu-abum — Samsu-Ditana	Amorite dynasty 1894–1595 BC Sumu-abum — Samsu-Ditana
palê Urukug ("Dynasty of Urukug") Ilum-ma-ili — Itti-ili-nibi	First Sealand dynasty omitted from list of rulers	First Sealand dynasty and early Kassite kings omitted from list of rulers	II. First Dynasty of the Sealand 1732–1475 BC Ilum-ma-ili — Itti-ili-nibi	First Sealand dynasty Uncertain dates Ilum-ma-ili — Itti-ili-nibi
palê Kasshi ("Dynasty of the Kassites") Gandash — Enlil-nadin-ahhe	Kassite dynasty c. 1729–1155 BC Gandash — Enlil-nadin-ahhe	Kassite dynasty 1374–1155 BC Kadashman-Enlil I — Enlil-nadin-ahhe	III. Kassite dynasty 1594–1155 BC Gandash / Agum II — Enlil-nadin-ahhe	Kassite dynasty ?–1595 BC Gandash / Hurbazum — Enlil-nadin-ahhe
palê Ishin ("Dynasty of Isin") (?) Marduk-kabit-ahheshu — Nabu-shum-libur	Second Dynasty of Isin c. 1155–1027 BC Marduk-kabit-ahheshu — Nabu-shum-libur	Second Dynasty of Isin 1157–1026 BC Marduk-kabit-ahheshu — Nabu-shum-libur	IV. Second Dynasty of Isin 1153–1022 BC Marduk-kabit-ahheshu — Nabu-shum-libur	Second Dynasty of Isin 1157–1026 BC Marduk-kabit-ahheshu — Nabu-shum-libur
palê Tamti ("Dynasty of the Sealand") Simpar-Shipak — Kashshu-nadin-ahi	Second Sealand dynasty c. 1026–1006 BC Simpar-Shipak — Kashshu-nadin-ahi	Second Sealand dynasty 1025–1005 BC Simpar-Shipak — Kashshu-nadin-ahi	V. Second Dynasty of the Sealand 1025–1005 BC Simpar-Shipak — Kashshu-nadin-ahi	Second Sealand dynasty 1025–1005 BC Simpar-Shipak — Kashshu-nadin-ahi
palê Bīt-Bazi ("Dynasty of Bit-Bazi") Eulmash-shakin-shumi — Shirikti-shuqamuna	Bazi dynasty c. 1005–980 BC Eulmash-shakin-shumi — Mar-biti-apla-usur	Bazi dynasty 1004–985 BC Eulmash-shakin-shumi — Shirikti-shuqamuna	VI. Dynasty of Bazi 1004–985 BC Eulmash-shakin-shumi — Shirikti-shuqamuna	Bazi dynasty 1004–985 BC Eulmash-shakin-shumi — Shirikti-shuqamuna
palê Elamtu ("Dynasty of Elam") Mar-biti-apla-usur		Elamite dynasty 984–979 BC Mar-biti-apla-usur	VII. Elamite dynasty 984–979 BC Mar-biti-apla-usur	Elamite dynasty 984–979 BC Mar-biti-apla-usur
palê E ("Dynasty of E") (=Babylon?) Nabu-mukin-apli — Nabu-shuma-ukin II	Dynasty of E c. 979–627 BC Nabu-mukin-apli — Kandalanu	Mixed dynasties 978–626 BC Nabu-mukin-apli — Sinsharishkun	VIII. Dynasty of E 978–732 BC Nabu-mukin-apli — Nabu-shuma-ukin II	Uncertain dynasties c. 978–? BC Nabu-mukin-apli — Marduk-apla-usur
				Dynasty of E ?–732 BC Eriba-Marduk — Nabu-shuma-ukin II
palê Šapî ("Dynasty of Shapi") Nabu-mukin-zeri			IX. Ninth Dynasty of Babylon 731–626 BC Nabu-mukin-zeri — Sinsharishkun	Shapi dynasty 731–729 BC Nabu-mukin-zeri
palê Baltil ("Dynasty of Baltil") (=Assur) Tiglath-Pileser & Shalmaneser				Assyrian dynasty 728–626 BC Tiglath-Pileser — Sinsharishkun
palê Tamti ("Dynasty of the Sealand") Marduk-apla-iddina II
palê Ḫabigal ("Dynasty of Habigal") (=Hanigalbat?) Sargon & Sennacherib
No dynastic attributions Marduk-zakir-shumi II & Marduk-apla-iddina II
palê E ("Dynasty of E") (=Babylon?) Bel-ibni
palê Ḫabigal ("Dynasty of Habigal") (=Hanigalbat?) Ashur-nadin-shumi
palê E ("Dynasty of E") (=Babylon?) Nergal-ushezib & Mushezib-Marduk
No dynastic attributions Esarhaddon — Sin-shumu-lishir
Rest of the list lost	Chaldean dynasty 626–539 BC Nabopolassar — Nabonidus	Neo-Babylonian dynasty 626–539 BC Nabopolassar — Nabonidus	X. Neo-Babylonian dynasty 625–539 BC Nabopolassar — Nabonidus	Chaldean dynasty 625–539 BC Nabopolassar — Nabonidus

Amorite dynasty (c. 1894–1595 BC)

The Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi (r. c. 1792–1750 BC)

The regnal dates below (and for the rest of the list, where applicable) follow Chen (2020),[31] which in turn follows the middle chronology of Mesopotamian history, the chronology most commonly encountered in literature, including most current textbooks on the archaeology and history of the Ancient Near East.[36][37][38]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Sumu-abum Šumu-abum	c. 1894 – 1881 BC	Babylon's first king, liberated the city from the control of the city-state Kazallu	[31]
—	Sumu-la-El Šumu-la-El	c. 1880 – 1845 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Sabium Sabūm	c. 1844 – 1831 BC	Son of Sumu-la-El	[31]
—	Apil-Sin Apil-Sîn	c. 1830 – 1813 BC	Son of Sabium	[31]
—	Sin-Muballit Sîn-Muballit	c. 1812 – 1793 BC	Son of Apil-Sin	[31]
	Hammurabi Ḫammu-rāpi	c. 1792 – 1750 BC	Son of Sin-Muballit	[31]
—	Samsu-iluna Šamšu-iluna	c. 1749 – 1712 BC	Son of Hammurabi	[31]
—	Abishi Abiši	c. 1711 – 1684 BC	Son of Samsu-iluna	[31]
—	Ammi-Ditana Ammi-ditāna	c. 1683 – 1647 BC	Son of Abishi	[31]
—	Ammi-Saduqa Ammi-Saduqa	c. 1646 – 1626 BC	Son of Ammi-Ditana	[31]
—	Samsu-Ditana Šamšu-ditāna	c. 1625 – 1595 BC	Son of Ammi-Saduqa	[31]

Interim kings

Conquest of the Sea-Land by the Kassites. 20th century reconstruction.

Samsu-Ditana's reign ended (according to the middle chronology) in 1595 BC with the sack and destruction of Babylon by the Hittites. Babylon and its kingdom would not be firmly re-established until the reign of the Kassite king Agum II.[39] Babylonian king lists consider the kings listed in this section as kings of Babylon between the Amorite dynasty and the Kassite dynasty, though most of them are unlikely to have ruled Babylon itself and the three dynasties likely overlapped significantly.[40] Precise dates for the reigns of these kings are not known.[31]

First Sealand dynasty

The First Sealand dynasty might only have ruled Babylonia itself for the briefest of periods, being based in formerly Sumerian regions south of it. Nevertheless, it is often traditionally numbered the Second Dynasty of Babylon. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Amorite dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[40]

Ilum-ma-ili (Ilum-ma-ilī), 60 years.[31]
Itti-ili-nibi (Itti-ili-nībī), 56(?) years.[31]
Damqi-ilishu (Damqi-ilišu), 26(?) years.[31]
Ishkibal (Iškibal), 15 years.[31]
Shushushi (Šušši), 24 years.[31]
Gulkishar (Gulkišar), 55 years.[31]
^mDIŠ+U-EN (^mDIŠ-U-EN, reading unknown), 12 years.[31]
Peshgaldaramesh (Pešgaldarameš), son of Gulkishar, 50 years.[31]
Ayadaragalama (Ayadaragalama), son of Peshgaldaramesh, 28 years.[31]
Akurduana (Akurduana), 26 years.[31]
Melamkurkurra (Melamkurkurra), 7 years.[31]
Ea-gamil (Ea-gamil), 9 years.[31]

Early Kassite rulers

These kings also did not actually rule Babylon, but succeeding Kassite kings did. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Sealand dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[40]

Gandash (Gandaš), 26 years.[31]
Agum I Mahru (Agum Maḫrû), son of Gandash, 22 years.[31]
Kashtiliash I (Kaštiliašu), son of Agum I, 22 years.[31]
Abi-Rattash (Abi-Rattaš or Uššiašu), son of Kashtiliash I, 8(?) years.[31]
Kashtiliash II (Kaštiliašu).[31]
Urzigurumash (Ur-zigurumaš or Tazzigurumaš).[31]
Hurbazum (Ḫurbazum or Ḫarba-Šipak).[31]
Shipta'ulzi (Šipta’ulzi or Tiptakzi).[31]

Kassite dynasty (c. 16th century BC – 1155 BC)

Map of Kassite Babylonia in the 13th century BC

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1400 BC

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1300 BC

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1200 BC

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Agum II Kakrime Agum-Kakrime	Uncertain	Re-established Babylon, son of Urzigurumash	[31]
—	Burnaburiash I Burna-Buriaš	Uncertain	Son of Agum II	[31]
—	(Name not recorded)	Uncertain	A king, whose name has not survived, ruled between Burnaburiash I and Kashtiliash III according to the Synchronistic Kinglist	[31]
—	Kashtiliash III Kaštiliašu	Uncertain	Son of Burnaburiash I	[31]
—	Ulamburiash Ulam-Buriaš	Uncertain	Son of Burnaburiash I	[31]
—	Agum III Agum	Uncertain	Son of Kashtiliash III	[31]
—	Karaindash Karaindaš	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Kadashman-harbe I Kadašman-Ḫarbe	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Kurigalzu I Kuri-Galzu	Uncertain	Son of Kadashman-harbe I	[31]
	Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1374 – 1360 BC	Son of Kurigalzu I	[31]
—	Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš	c. 1359 – 1333 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil I (?)	[31]
—	Karahardash Kara-ḫardaš	c. 1333 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II	[31]
—	Nazibugash Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš	c. 1333 BC	Unrelated to other kings, usurped the throne from Karahardash	[31]
	Kurigalzu II Kuri-Galzu	c. 1332 – 1308 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II, appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I	[31]
—	Nazimaruttash Nazi-Maruttaš	c. 1307 – 1282 BC	Son of Kurigalzu II	[31]
—	Kadashman-Turgu Kadašman-Turgu	c. 1281 – 1264 BC	Son of Nazi-Maruttash	[31]
—	Kadashman-Enlil II Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1263 – 1255 BC	Son of Kadashman-Turgu	[31]
—	Kudur-Enlil Kudur-Enlil	c. 1254 – 1246 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil II	[31]
—	Shagarakti-Shuriash Šagarakti-Šuriaš	c. 1245 – 1233 BC	Son of Kudur-Enlil	[31]
—	Kashtiliash IV Kaštiliašu	c. 1232 – 1225 BC	Son of Shagarakti-Shuriash	[31]
—	Enlil-nadin-shumi Enlil-nādin-šumi	c. 1224 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Kadashman-harbe II Kadašman-Ḫarbe	c. 1223 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-šuma-iddina	c. 1222 – 1217 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Adad-shuma-usur Adad-šuma-uṣur	c. 1216 – 1187 BC	Descendant (son?) of Kashtiliash IV	[31]
	Meli-Shipak Meli-Šipak or Melišiḫu	c. 1186 – 1172 BC	Son of Adad-shuma-usur	[31]
	Marduk-apla-iddina I Marduk-apla-iddina	c. 1171 – 1159 BC	Son of Meli-Shipak	[31]
	Zababa-shuma-iddin Zababa-šuma-iddina	c. 1158 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Enlil-nadin-ahi Enlil-nādin-aḫe or Enlil-šuma-uṣur	c. 1157 – 1155 BC	Unclear succession	[31]

Second dynasty of Isin (c. 1157–1026 BC)

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1100 BC

Named in reference to the ancient Sumerian (First) Dynasty of Isin. Contemporary Babylonian documents refer to this dynasty as BALA PA.ŠE, a paronomasia (play on words) on the term išinnu ("stalk", written as PA.ŠE), interpreted by some as an apparent reference to the city Isin.[41]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu	c. 1157 – 1140 BC	Unclear succession, early reign overlaps with Enlil-nadin-ahi's reign	[31]
—	Itti-Marduk-balatu Itti-Marduk-balāṭu	c. 1139 – 1132 BC	Son of Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	[31]
—	Ninurta-nadin-shumi Ninurta-nādin-šumi	c. 1131 – 1126 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
	Nebuchadnezzar I Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	c. 1125 – 1104 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi	[31]
—	Enlil-nadin-apli Enlil-nādin-apli	c. 1103 – 1100 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar I	[31]
	Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē	c. 1099 – 1082 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi, usurped the throne from Enlil-nadin-apli	[31]
—	Marduk-shapik-zeri Marduk-šāpik-zēri	c. 1081 – 1069 BC	Possibly son of either Marduk-nadin-ahhe or Ninurta-nadin-shumi	[31]
—	Adad-apla-iddina Adad-apla-iddina	c. 1068 – 1047 BC	Appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala	[31]
—	Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-aḫḫē-erība	c. 1046 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Marduk-zer-X Marduk-zer-X	c. 1045 – 1034 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Nabu-shum-libur Nabû-šumu-libūr	c. 1033 – 1026 BC	Unclear succession	[31]

Second Sealand dynasty (c. 1025–1005 BC)

Evidence that these kings were Kassites, a common assertion, is somewhat lacking.[42]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Simbar-shipak Simbar-Šipak	c. 1025 – 1008 BC	Usurped the throne from Nabu-shum-libur	[31]
—	Ea-mukin-zeri Ea-mukin-zēri	c. 1008 BC	Usurped the throne from Simpar-shipak	[31]
—	Kashshu-nadin-ahi Kaššu-nādin-aḫi	c. 1007 – 1005 BC	Usurped the throne from Ea-mukin-zeri	[31]

Bazi dynasty (c. 1004–985 BC)

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 1000 BC

The Bazi (or Bīt-Bazi) dynasty was a minor Kassite clan. They ruled Babylonia from the city Kar-Marduk, an otherwise unknown location which might have been better protected against raids from nomadic groups than Babylon itself.[43]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Eulmash-shakin-shumi Eulmaš-šākin-šumi	c. 1004 – 988 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 987 – 985 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Shirikti-shuqamuna Širikti-šuqamuna	c. 985 BC	Brother of Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	[31]

Elamite dynasty (c. 984–979 BC)

The Elamite dynasty only contains a single king, Mar-biti-apla-usur.[31]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Mar-biti-apla-usur Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur	c. 984 – 979 BC	Described as having Elamite ancestry, unclear succession	[31]

Dynasty of E (c. 978–732 BC)

Most of the kings attributed to the dynasty of E in king lists were seemingly unrelated. This list includes all those who were attributed to the dynasty in Babylonian king lists, but modern historians vary in how many kings they view the dynasty as encompassing, ranging from all of them to just the final five.[31][32]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
	Nabu-mukin-apli Nabû-mukin-apli	c. 978 – 943 BC	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 943 BC	Son of Nabu-mukin-apli	[31]
—	Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna	Uncertain	Son of Nabu-mukin-apli	[31]
—	Shamash-mudammiq Šamaš-mudammiq	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabû-šuma-ukin	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
	Nabu-apla-iddina Nabû-apla-iddina	Uncertain, 33 years?	Son of Nabu-shuma-ukin I	[31]
	Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-zâkir-šumi	Uncertain, 27 years?	Son of Nabu-apla-iddina	[31]
—	Marduk-balassu-iqbi Marduk-balāssu-iqbi	Uncertain	Son of Marduk-zakir-shumi I	[31]
—	Baba-aha-iddina Bāba-aḫa-iddina	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
Interregnum: Babylon experiences an interregnum following the end of Baba-aha-iddina's reign lasting several years (exact length indeterminable), described as a "kingless" period in Babylonian sources. Several Chaldean chiefs claim either independence or royal power (though none were recognized in Babylonian king lists) during this time, including Marduk-shakin-shumi of the Bit-Yakin (possibly the father of the later king Eriba-Marduk) and Nabu-shumu-lishir of the Bit-Dakkuri.[44]
—	Ninurta-apla-X Ninurta-apla-X	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-bēl-zēri	Uncertain	Unclear succession	[31]
—	Marduk-apla-usur Marduk-apla-uṣur	Uncertain	A Chaldean chief, unclear succession	[31]
—	Eriba-Marduk Erība-Marduk	Uncertain	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), unclear succession	[31]
—	Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabû-šuma-iškun	c. 760 – 748 BC	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Dakkuri tribe), unclear succession	[31]
—	Nabonassar Nabû-nāṣir	748 – 734 BC	A Native Babylonian, usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ishkun	[31]
—	Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabû-nādin-zēri	734 – 732 BC	Son of Nabonassar	[31]
—	Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabû-šuma-ukin	732 BC	Usurped the throne from Nabu-nadin-zeri	[31]

Shapi dynasty (732–729 BC)

The brief Shapi dynasty contains only a single king, immediately preceding the Assyrian conquest of Babylon.[31] The sole king of the dynasty, Nabu-mukin-zeri, is sometimes considered part of the subsequent Assyrian dynasty instead (then numbered as Babylon's ninth or tenth dynasty).[32]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Nabu-mukin-zeri Nabû-mukin-zēri	732 – 729 BC	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Amukkani tribe), usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ukin II	[31]

Assyrian dynasty (729–626 BC)

The Neo-Assyrian Empire in the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III

The Neo-Assyrian Empire at the apex of its power in 671 BC, in the reign of Esarhaddon

The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Babylonia in 729 BC.[45] From his rule and onwards, most of the Assyrian kings were also titled as kings of Babylon, ruling both Assyria and Babylonia in something akin to a personal union.[46]

Vassal kings, sometimes appointed instead of the Assyrian king ruling Babylonia directly, are indicated with darker grey background color. Native Babylonians who rebelled against the ruling dynasty of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color.

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
	Tiglath-Pileser (Tiglath-Pileser III) Tukultī-apil-Ešarra	729 – 727 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: conquered Babylon	[31]
	Shalmaneser (Shalmaneser V) Salmānu-ašarēd	727 – 722 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Tiglath-Pileser III	[31]
	Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (first reign)	722 – 710 BC	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), seized power in Babylonia after Shalmaneser V's death, also known as Merodach-Baladan	[31]
	Sargon (Sargon II) Šarru-kīn	710 – 705 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: claimed to be the son of Tiglath-Pileser III, usurped the throne from Shalmaneser V, conquered Babylon in 710 BC	[31]
	Sennacherib Sîn-ahhe-erība (first reign)	705 – 703 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Sargon II	[31]
—	Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-zâkir-šumi	703 BC	Native Babylonian rebel	[31]
	Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (second reign)	703 BC	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), previously king 722–710 BC, usurped the throne from Marduk-zakir-shumi II	[31]
—	Bel-ibni Bel-ibni	703 – 700 BC	Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib	[31]
—	Ashur-nadin-shumi Aššur-nādin-šumi	700 – 694 BC	Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib, son of Sennacherib	[31]
—	Nergal-ushezib Nergal-ušezib	694 – 693 BC	Native Babylonian rebel	[31]
—	Mushezib-Marduk Mušezib-Marduk	693 – 689 BC	A Chaldean chief (Bit-Dakkuri tribe)	[31]
	Sennacherib Sîn-ahhe-erība (second reign)	689 – 681 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: restored control of Babylonia. The city was destroyed in 681 BC and Sennacherib did not assume the title "king of Babylon", though some lists list him as ruler in this time, a practice followed in modern historiography.	[31][47][48]
	Esarhaddon Aššur-aḫa-iddina	681 – 669 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son and successor of Sennacherib, rebuilt Babylon	[31][49]
	Ashurbanipal Aššur-bāni-apli	669 – 668 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son and successor of Esarhaddon, technically briefly held the kingship before it was given to his brother Shamash-shum-ukin, often omitted from king lists but included in lists by modern historians	[28][31][48]
	Shamash-shum-ukin Šamaš-šuma-ukin	668 – 648 BC	Vassal king under Ashurbanipal, brother of Ashurbanipal and son of Esarhaddon	[31]
—	Kandalanu Kandalānu	648 – 627 BC	Vassal king appointed by Ashurbanipal	[31]
	Sin-shumu-lishir Sîn-šumu-līšir	626 BC	Usurper in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: unclear if he actually used the title "king of Babylon" or if there was an interregnum, included in some king lists and in lists by modern historians	[28][31][48][50]
—	Sinsharishkun Sîn-šar-iškun	626 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Ashurbanipal, unclear if he actually used the title "king of Babylon" or if there was an interregnum, included in some king lists and in lists by modern historians	[31][48][50]

Chaldean dynasty (626–539 BC)

Map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire at its height during the reign of its final king, Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC)

The rebel Nabopolassar, proclaimed as Babylon's king in 626 BC, successfully drove out the Assyrians from southern Mesopotamia and had united and consolidated all of Babylonia under his rule by 620 BC, founding the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[51] The Neo-Babylonian (or Chaldean)[31] dynasty was Babylonia's last dynasty of native Mesopotamian monarchs and the fall of their empire in 539 BC marked the end of Babylonia as an independent kingdom.[52]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
—	Nabopolassar Nabû-apla-uṣur	626 – 605 BC	Native Babylonian rebel, successfully drove out the Assyrians and re-established Babylonia as an independent kingdom	[31]
	Nebuchadnezzar II Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	605 – 562 BC	Son of Nabopolassar	[31]
—	Amel-Marduk Amēl-Marduk	562 – 560 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar II	[31]
—	Neriglissar Nergal-šar-uṣur	560 – 556 BC	Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, usurped the throne	[31][53]
—	Labashi-Marduk Labaši-Marduk	556 BC	Son of Neriglissar	[31]
	Nabonidus Nabû-naʾid	556 – 539 BC	Possibly son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II (or unrelated), usurped the throne from Labashi-Marduk	[31][53]

Babylon under foreign empires

Achaemenid dynasty (539–331 BC)

Borders of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 500 BC

Map of the Achaemenid Empire and its satrapies c. 480 BC

In 539, Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylon, which would never again successfully regain independence. The Babylonians had resented their last native king, Nabonidus, over his religious practices and some of his political choices and Cyrus could thus claim to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Baylon's national deity, Marduk.[54] The early Achaemenid rulers had great respect for Babylonia, regarding the region as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union.[11] Despite this, the native Babylonians grew to resent their foreign rulers, as they had with the Assyrians earlier, and rebelled several times. The Achaemenid kings continued to use the title "king of Babylon" alongside their other royal titles until the reign of Xerxes I, who dropped the title in 481 BC, divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy and desecrated Babylon after having had to put down a Babylonian revolt.[11]

In the king lists of the Babylonians, the Achaemenid kings continued to be recognized as Kings of Babylon until the end of the Achaemenid Empire. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow the renderings of the names of these monarchs in the Uruk King List (also known as "King List 5") and the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (also known as BKLHP or “King List 6”), as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[55][56] These lists records rulers, identifying them as "kings of Babylon".[57]

Native Babylonians who rebelled against the Achaemenids and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color. Vassal kings are indicated with darker grey background color.

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
	Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) Kuraš	539 – 530 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: conquered Babylon	[55]
	Cambyses (Cambyses II) Kambuzīa	538 BC, 530 – 522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Cyrus, briefly vassal king under (or co-ruler with) his father in 538 BC as King of Babylon before being dismissed, king again upon Cyrus's death in 530 BC	[55][58][59]
	Bardiya Barzia	522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Cyrus or possibly an impostor	[56]
	Nebuchadnezzar III Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	522 BC	Native Babylonian rebel, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt against Persian rule lasted from October to December 522 BC	[60]
	Darius I the Great Dariamuš	522 – 486 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Hystaspes, a third cousin of Cyrus, usurped the throne from Bardiya	[55]
	Nebuchadnezzar IV Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	521 BC	Babylonian rebel of Armenian descent, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt lasted from 25 August to 27 November 521 BC	[60]
	Xerxes I the Great Aḥšiaršu	486 – 465 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Darius I	[11]
—	Shamash-eriba Šamaš-eriba	484 BC	Native Babylonian rebel, rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Bel-shimanni	[61]
—	Bel-shimanni Bêl-šimânni	484 BC	Native Babylonian rebel, rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Shamash-eriba	[61]
	Artaxerxes I Artakšatsu	465 – 424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Xerxes I, the last Achaemenid king documented to have incorporated "king of Babylon" into his own titulary	[11][12][56]
	Xerxes II Aḥšiaršu	424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I	[56]
—	Sogdianus Sogdianu	424 – 423 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from Xerxes II	[56]
	Darius II Dariamuš	423 – 404 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from Sogdianus	[56]
	Artaxerxes II Artakšatsu	404 – 358 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Darius II	[56]
	Artaxerxes III Artakšatsu	358 – 338 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes II	[56]
	Artaxerxes IV Artakšatsu	338 – 336 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes III	[56]
—	Nidin-Bel Nidin-Bêl	336 BC or 336 – 335 BC	Only mentioned in the Uruk King List, either a scribal error or a native Babylonian rebel who led a brief revolt	[55]
	Darius III Dariamuš	336/335 – 331 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire: great-grandson of Darius II, usurped the throne from Artaxerxes IV	[55]

Argead dynasty (331–309 BC)

Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route of his campaigns

Map of Alexander the Great's empire and its satrapies c. 323 BC

Though they probably did not use the title themselves, Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Argead dynasty, which conquered Babylonia and the rest of the Persian Empire under Alexander the Great in 331 BC, as kings of Babylon. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists.[55][56][57]

Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
Alexander I the Great (Alexander III) Aliksāndar	331 – 323 BC	King of Macedon: conquered the Achaemenid Empire	[55]
Philip Arrhidaeus (Philip III) Pīlipsu	323 – 317 BC	King of Macedon: brother of Alexander the Great	[55]
Alexander II (Alexander IV) Aliksāndarusu	323 – 309 BC	King of Macedon: son of Alexander the Great	[57]

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
	Antigonus Monophthalmus (Antigonus I) Antigūnusu	317 – 311 BC	King of the Antigonid Empire: mentioned in some king lists, Babylonian sources suggest that the Babylonians considered Antigonus's rule illegal and that he should have accepted the sovereignty of Alexander the Great's son	[55][57]

Seleucid dynasty (311–141 BC)

Map of the Seleucid Empire and the other Diadochi c. 300 BC

Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, which succeeded the Argeads in Mesopotamia and Persia, as Kings of Babylon. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists, as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[55][57] The Antiochus Cylinder of Antiochus I (r. 271–261 BC) is the last known example of an ancient Akkadian royal titulary and it accords him several traditional Mesopotamian titles, such as king of Babylon and king of the Universe.[62]

Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color.

Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
Seleucus I Nicator Siluku	311 – 281 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: general (Diadochus) of Alexander the Great, seized Babylonia and much of Alexander's former eastern lands after Alexander's death, Seleucus did not proclaim himself king until 305 BC but Babylonian sources consider him as such from 311 BC onwards	[55]
Antiochus I Soter Anti'ukusu	281 – 261 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus I	[55]
Antiochus II Theos Anti'ukusu	261 – 246 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus I	[55]
Seleucus II Callinicus Siluku	246 – 225 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus II	[55]
Seleucus III Ceraunus Siluku	225 – 223 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus II	[57]
Antiochus III the Great Anti'ukusu	222 – 187 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus II	[57]
Seleucus IV Philopator Siluku	187 – 175 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus III	[57]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes Anti'ukusu	175 – 164 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus III	[57]
Antiochus V Eupator Anti'ukusu	164 – 161 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus IV	[63]
Demetrius I Soter Demeṭri	161 – 150 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus IV	[57]
Timarchus Timarkusu	161 – 160 BC	Satrap of Media, rebelled against Demetrius I, seized Babylon and was briefly recognized there as king	[64]
Alexander III Balas (Alexander I) Aliksāndar	150 – 145 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV, usurped the throne from Demetrius I	[65]
Demetrius II Nicator Demeṭri	145 – 141 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Demetrius I, usurped the throne from Alexander Balas	[57]

Arsacid dynasty (141 – c. 2 BC)

Map of the Ancient Near East c. 100 BC, showing the Parthian Empire in the east

Borders of the Parthian Empire in the late 1st century BC

Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia was lost by the Seleucids to the Parthian Empire in 141 BC. There are no Babylonian king lists which record any ruler after the Seleucids as a King of Babylon.[57] King List 6 ends, after Demetrius II, with a passage referencing "Arsaces the king", indicating that the list was created in the early years of Parthian rule in Mesopotamia (Arsaces being the regnal name used by all Parthian kings). Because the list is so fragmentary, it is unclear if this Arsaces was formally considered a King of Babylon (as the Persian and Hellenic rulers had been) by the list's author.[66]

Recognition of the Parthians, and the preceding foreign empires, as monarchs of Babylon has been limited and variable in modern scholarship. In 2018, Canadian Assyriologist Paul-Alain Beaulieu, who numbered the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian dynasty as Dynasty X of Babylon, supplemented the foreign dynasties that ruled Babylon after the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the native ones, designating the Achaemenid dynasty as Dynasty XI, the Argeads as Dynasty XII, the Seleucids as Dynasty XIII and the Arsacids as Dynasty XIV.[67]

Under the Parthians, Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban center and the old Akkadian culture diminished.[68] Critically, the nearby and newer cities of Seleucia and later Ctesiphon overshadowed Babylon and became the imperial capitals of the region.[69] In the first century or so of Parthian rule, Babylon continued to be somewhat important[68] and documents from this time suggest a continued recognition of at least the early Parthian kings as Babylonian monarchs.[70] The few Babylonian documents that survive from the Parthian era suggest a growing sense of alarm and alienation among the last few Babylonians as the Parthian kings were mostly absent from the city and the Babylonian culture slowly slipped away.[71]

When exactly Babylon was abandoned is unclear. Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote in 50 AD that proximity to Seleucia had turned Babylon into a "barren waste" and during their campaigns in the east, Roman emperors Trajan (in 115 AD) and Septimius Severus (in 199 AD) supposedly found the city destroyed and deserted. Archaeological evidence and the writings of Abba Arikha (c. 219 AD) indicate that at least the temples of Babylon were still active in the early 3rd century.[69] Religious reforms in the early Sasanian Empire c. 230 AD would have decisively wiped out the last remnants of the old Babylonian culture, if it still existed at that point.[72]

Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color. Seleucid rulers (who briefly regained Babylon) are indicated with pink color.

Image	Name	Reign	Succession & notes	Ref
	Mithridates I the Great Aršákā	141 – 132 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: conquered Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia	[73]
	Phraates I (Phraates II) Aršákā	132 – 130 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Mithridates I	[74][75]
	Antiochus VI Sidetes (Antiochus VII) Anti'ukusu	130 – 129 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire: restored Seleucid control of Babylonia in 130 BC	[76]
	Artabanus (Artabanus I) Aršákā and Ártabana	129 – 124 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: brother of Mithridates I, Babylonian documents suggest that the Parthians were recognized as kings again in 129 BC	[76][77][78]
	Hyspaosines Aspāsinē	127 BC	Originally a seleucid satrap and then King of Characene, briefly captured Babylon in 127 BC and was recognized by the Babylonians as their king for a few months	[77]
	Mithridates II the Great Aršákā	124 – 91 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Artabanus	[79]
	Gotarzes (Gotarzes I) Aršákā and Gutárzā	91 – 80 BC[n 1]	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Mithridates II	[81][82]
	Orodes I Aršákā and Úrudā	80 – 75 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Gotarzes	[83]
—	Arsaces (Arsaces XVI) Aršákā	75 – 67 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: obscure Parthian king attested by some sources, Orodes I's more known successor, Sinatruces, is not mentioned in any Babylonian sources, suggesting he never ruled the city	[84]
	Phraates II (Phraates III) Aršákám	67 – 57 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Sinatruces, captured Babylon	[85]
	Mithridates III (Mithridates IV) Aršákám	57 BC, 55–54 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Phraates III, lost the throne to Orodes II shortly after gaining it, retook Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia briefly 55–54 BC	[86]
	Orodes II Aršákám	57–55 BC, 54–37 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Phraates III, contended with his brother Mithridates in the early years of his reign	[86]
	Phraates III (Phraates IV) Aršákám	37 – 2 BC	King of the Parthian Empire: son of Orodes II, final ruler attested as king in Babylonian sources (in an astronomical diary from 5 BC)[n 2]	[14][15]

Notes

Some historians place an additional Parthian king, Mithridates III of Parthia, between Gotarzes I and Orodes I, reigning c. 87–80 BC. Babylonian documents only corroborate the rule of Gotarzes I and Orodes I.[80]
There are a handful of later cuneiform tablets, but none explicitly name a king. The latest datable tablet is W22340a, dated to 79/80 AD (from the reign of Parthian king Artabanus III). W22340a preserves the word LUGAL (king) but it is too fragmentary to firmly indicate that the intended king is Artabanus III.[87] Furthermore, the tablet was recovered at Uruk,[88] not Babylon (which might have been abandoned at this point).[69]

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Assar 2006, pp. 87–88.
Bivar 1983, p. 49.
Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 185.
Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 182.

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[81] Some historians place an additional Parthian king, Mithridates III of Parthia, between Gotarzes I and Orodes I, reigning c. 87–80 BC. Babylonian documents only corroborate the rule of Gotarzes I and Orodes I.[80]

[90] There are a handful of later cuneiform tablets, but none explicitly name a king. The latest datable tablet is W22340a, dated to 79/80 AD (from the reign of Parthian king Artabanus III). W22340a preserves the word LUGAL (king) but it is too fragmentary to firmly indicate that the intended king is Artabanus III.[87] Furthermore, the tablet was recovered at Uruk,[88] not Babylon (which might have been abandoned at this point).[69]

[FOOTNOTESoares201723-1] Soares 2017, p. 23.

[FOOTNOTEKarlsson20172-2] Karlsson 2017, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEGoetze196498-3] Goetze 1964, p. 98.

[FOOTNOTEDa_Riva201372-4] Da Riva 2013, p. 72.

[FOOTNOTESoares201724-5] Soares 2017, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTEShayegan2011260-6] Shayegan 2011, p. 260.

[FOOTNOTELuckenbill19249-7] Luckenbill 1924, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTESoares201728-8] Soares 2017, p. 28.

[FOOTNOTEKarlsson20176,_11-9] Karlsson 2017, pp. 6, 11.

[FOOTNOTEStevens201468-10] Stevens 2014, p. 68.

[FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989185–186-11] Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186.

[FOOTNOTEWaerzeggers20183-12] Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEAssar200665-13] Assar 2006, p. 65.

[FOOTNOTEBoiy2004187-14] Boiy 2004, p. 187.

[FOOTNOTESteele1998193-15] Steele 1998, p. 193.

[FOOTNOTESoares201721-16] Soares 2017, p. 21.

[FOOTNOTESoares201722-17] Soares 2017, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTENew_Cyrus_Cylinder_Translation-18] New Cyrus Cylinder Translation.

[FOOTNOTECyrus_Cylinder_Translation-19] Cyrus Cylinder Translation.

[FOOTNOTEPeat1989199-20] Peat 1989, p. 199.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Meer195542-21] Van Der Meer 1955, p. 42.

[FOOTNOTEZaia20193-22] Zaia 2019, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTELaingFrost2017-23] Laing & Frost 2017.

[FOOTNOTEZaia20194-24] Zaia 2019, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEZaia20196-25] Zaia 2019, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEZaia20197-26] Zaia 2019, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEZaia20196–7-27] Zaia 2019, pp. 6–7.

[FOOTNOTEFales2014208-28] Fales 2014, p. 208.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu201813-29] Beaulieu 2018, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEFales2014210-30] Fales 2014, p. 210.

[FOOTNOTEChen2020202–206-31] Chen 2020, pp. 202–206.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu201812-32] Beaulieu 2018, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu201810–13,_154–155,_176–178-33] Beaulieu 2018, pp. 10–13, 154–155, 176–178.

[FOOTNOTELeick2010200–205-34] Leick 2010, pp. 200–205.

[FOOTNOTEVan_De_Mieroop2016352–359-35] Van De Mieroop 2016, pp. 352–359.

[FOOTNOTEKuhrt199712-36] Kuhrt 1997, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEMieroop20154-37] Mieroop 2015, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTESagonaZimansky2009251-38] Sagona & Zimansky 2009, p. 251.

[FOOTNOTEBrinkman197697–98-39] Brinkman 1976, pp. 97–98.

[FOOTNOTESynchronic_King_List-40] Synchronic King List.

[FOOTNOTEBrinkman1999183–184-41] Brinkman 1999, pp. 183–184.

[FOOTNOTEMeissner19998-42] Meissner 1999, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEBrinkman1982296–297-43] Brinkman 1982, pp. 296–297.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu2018184–185-44] Beaulieu 2018, pp. 184–185.

[FOOTNOTEBrinkman197390-45] Brinkman 1973, p. 90.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek197757-46] Van Der Spek 1977, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEFrahm2014210-47] Frahm 2014, p. 210.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu2018195-48] Beaulieu 2018, p. 195.

[FOOTNOTEPorter199367-49] Porter 1993, p. 67.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu1997386-50] Beaulieu 1997, p. 386.

[FOOTNOTELipschits200516-51] Lipschits 2005, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEHanish200832-52] Hanish 2008, p. 32.

[FOOTNOTEWiseman198312-53] Wiseman 1983, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTENijssen2018-54] Nijssen 2018.

[FOOTNOTELendering2005-55] Lendering 2005.

[FOOTNOTEBertin189151-56] Bertin 1891, p. 51.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2004-57] Van Der Spek 2004.

[FOOTNOTEDandamaev1990726–729-58] Dandamaev 1990, pp. 726–729.

[FOOTNOTEBriant2002519-59] Briant 2002, p. 519.

[FOOTNOTELendering1998-60] Lendering 1998.

[FOOTNOTEWaerzeggers201812-61] Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEStevens201472-62] Stevens 2014, p. 72.

[FOOTNOTELendering2006a-63] Lendering 2006a.

[FOOTNOTEHoughton1979215-64] Houghton 1979, p. 215.

[FOOTNOTELendering2006b-65] Lendering 2006b.

[FOOTNOTESachsWiseman1954209-66] Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.

[FOOTNOTEBeaulieu201814-67] Beaulieu 2018, p. 14.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2001449-68] Van Der Spek 2001, p. 449.

[FOOTNOTEBrown200877-69] Brown 2008, p. 77.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2001451-70] Van Der Spek 2001, p. 451.

[FOOTNOTEHaubold2019276-71] Haubold 2019, p. 276.

[FOOTNOTEGeorge200764-72] George 2007, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2001450-73] Van Der Spek 2001, p. 450.

[FOOTNOTEShayegan2011128-129-74] Shayegan 2011, pp. 128-129.

[FOOTNOTEAssar200658-75] Assar 2006, p. 58.

[FOOTNOTEBoiy2004172-76] Boiy 2004, p. 172.

[FOOTNOTEShayegan2011111-77] Shayegan 2011, p. 111.

[FOOTNOTESchippmann1986647–650-78] Schippmann 1986, pp. 647–650.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2001454-79] Van Der Spek 2001, p. 454.

[FOOTNOTESellwood196273-80] Sellwood 1962, p. 73.

[FOOTNOTEVan_Der_Spek2001455-82] Van Der Spek 2001, p. 455.

[FOOTNOTEAssar200662-83] Assar 2006, p. 62.

[FOOTNOTESellwood196273,_75-84] Sellwood 1962, pp. 73, 75.

[FOOTNOTEAssar200656,_85-85] Assar 2006, pp. 56, 85.

[FOOTNOTEAssar200687–88-86] Assar 2006, pp. 87–88.

[FOOTNOTEBivar198349-87] Bivar 1983, p. 49.

[FOOTNOTEHungerde_Jong2014185-88] Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 185.

[FOOTNOTEHungerde_Jong2014182-89] Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 182.

Ancient Mesopotamian royal titulature
Dominion over the world	King of All Peoples (šar kiššat nišē) King of the Four Corners of the World (šar kibrāt erbetti) King of the Universe (šar kiššatim) More
Dominion over Mesopotamia	King of Kings (šar šarrāni) King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) King of the Lands (šar mātāti) More
The king's person	Great King (šarru rabu) Mighty King (šarrum dannum) More
Specific locations	King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi) King of Assyria (šar māt Aššur) King of Babylon (šar Bābili) King of Sumer (šar māt Šumeri) More
Titles rendered in Akkadian language.