List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Söğüt since before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa since 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I, and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]

Family tree
Sultan of
the Ottoman Empire
Osmanlı padişahları
Imperial
Last to reign
Mehmed VI
4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922
Details
StyleHis Imperial Majesty
First monarchOsman I (c. 1299–1323/4)
Last monarchMehmed VI (1918–1922)
Formationc. 1299
Abolition1 November 1922
ResidencePalaces in Istanbul:
AppointerHereditary
Ottoman Imperial Standard
Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion in Europe.

The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the thirteenth century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.[3]

Names

The sultan was also referred to as the Padishah (Ottoman Turkish: پادشاه‎, romanized: pâdişâh, French: Padichah). In Ottoman usage the word "Padisha" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named.[4] In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks,[5] or simply the "Great Lord" (il Gran Signore, le grand seigneur) especially in the 16th century.

Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities:[4]

  • Arabic: In some documents "Padishah" was replaced by "malik" ("king")[4]
  • Armenian: "Sultann" and "PADIŠAH"
  • Bulgarian: In earlier periods Bulgarian people called him the "tsar". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used direct translations of "sultan" (Sultan) and "padishah" (Padišax)[4]
  • Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name "basileus". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of "sultan" (Σουλτάνος Soultanos) and "padishah" (ΠΑΔΙΣΑΧ padisach).[4]
  • Judaeo-Spanish: Especially in older documents, El Rey ("the king") was used. In addition some Ladino documents used sultan (in Hebrew chartacters: שלטנ and ולטנ).[4]
  • Persian: "Padishah" (as pādešāh) was used in Persian as well.
  • Serbian: Sultan was used in Serbian language.

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت‎ şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم‎ ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین‎ Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).[6] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان‎). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[7] Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar (قیصر‎ qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[6][8][9] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[10] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[11]

Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[7] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[12] women of the imperial harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[13]

Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[14] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2021, the head of the House of Osman has been Harun Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.[15]

List of sultans
See also: Simplified Ottoman family tree and Detailed Ottoman family tree

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. Continuingly, the tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[16] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت‎ ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[17] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[18] Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.

№ Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Time in office Tughra Notes
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299 – 1453)
1 Osman I
ĠĀZĪ (the Warrior)
 c. 1299 c. 1326 [19] 27 years, 0 days —
[c]
  • Son of Ertuğrul Bey[20] and an unknown woman.[21]
  • Reigned until his death.
2 Orhan
ĠĀZĪ (the Warrior)		 c. 1326 [22] 1362 36 years, 0 days
3 Murad I
SULTÂN-I ÂZAM (the Most Exalted Sultan)
HÜDAVENDİGÂR
(the Devotee of God)
ŞEHÎD (the Martyr) [24][b]		 1362 15 June 1389 27 years, 165 days
4 Bayezid I
SULTÂN-I RÛM (Sultan of Rome)
YILDIRIM (Thunderbolt)		 15 June 1389 20 July 1402 13 years, 35 days
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
— İsa Çelebi
The Co-Sultan of Anatolia		 1403–1405
(Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory)		 1406 3 years, 0 days —
— Emir (Amir)
Süleyman Çelebi
The First Sultan of Rumelia		 20 July 1402 17 February 1411[27] 8 years, 212 days
— Musa Çelebi
The Second Sultan of Rumelia		 18 February 1411 5 July 1413[29] 2 years, 0 days —
— Mehmed Çelebi
The Sultan of Anatolia		 1403–1406
(Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory)

1406–1413
(The Sultan of Anatolia)		 5 July 1413 10 years, 185 days —
Sultanate resumed
5 Mehmed I
ÇELEBİ (The Affable)
KİRİŞÇİ (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support)		 5 July 1413 26 May 1421 7 years, 325 days
— Mustafa Çelebi
The Third Sultan of Rumelia		 — January 1419 May 1422 3 years, 120 days —
6 Murad II
KOCA (The Great)
Ghazavat-ı Sultan (Ghazi Sultan)
 25 June 1421 1444 22 years, 190 days
7 Mehmed II
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)		 1444 1446 2 years, 0 days
  • Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun.[21]
  • Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries.[33]
(6) Murad II
KOCA (The Great)		 1446 3 February 1451 5 years, 33 days
  • Second reign;
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence;[34]
  • Reigned until his death.
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453 – 1550)
(7) Mehmed II
KAYSER-İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire)
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)		 3 February 1451 3 May 1481 30 years, 89 days
8 Bayezid II
VELÎ (The Saint)		 19 May 1481 25 April 1512 30 years, 342 days
— Cem Sultan 28 May 1481 20 June 1481 23 days
  • Son of Mehmed II
  • Acquired the title Cem bin Mehmed Han.[37]
  • Died in exile
9 Selim I
YAVUZ (The Strong)
Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain
(Servant of Mecca and Medina)		 25 April 1512 21 September 1520 8 years, 149 days
10 Suleiman I
MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent)

or KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver)
قانونى

 30 September 1520 6 September 1566 45 years, 341 days
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550 – 1700)
11 Selim II
SARI (The Blond)

Fatih Cyprus (The Conqueror of Cyprus) Sarhoş (The Drunk)

 29 September 1566 21 December 1574 8 years, 83 days
12 Murad III
Dindar (The Pious)		 22 December 1574 16 January 1595 20 years, 25 days
13 Mehmed III
ADLÎ (The Just)		 16 January 1595 22 December 1603 8 years, 340 days
14 Ahmed I
BAḪTī (The Fortunate)		 22 December 1603 22 November 1617 13 years, 335 days
15 Mustafa I
DELİ (The Mad)		 22 November 1617 26 February 1618 96 days
16 Osman II
GENÇ (The Young)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr)
شهيد		 26 February 1618 19 May 1622 4 years, 82 days
(15) Mustafa I
DELİ (The Mad)		 20 May 1622 10 September 1623 1 year, 113 days
  • Second reign;
  • Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II;
  • Deposed due to his poor mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.[44]
17 Murad IV
SAHİB-Î KIRAN
The Conqueror of Baghdad
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى		 10 September 1623 8 February 1640 16 years, 151 days
18 Ibrahim
DELİ (The Mad)
The Conqueror of Crete
ŞEHÎD 		9 February 1640 8 August 1648 8 years, 181 days
19 Mehmed IV
AVCI (The Hunter)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى		 8 August 1648 8 November 1687 39 years, 92 days
20 Suleiman II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
 8 November 1687 22 June 1691 3 years, 226 days
21 Ahmed II
ḪĀN ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior Prince)		 22 June 1691 6 February 1695 3 years, 229 days
22 Mustafa II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 6 February 1695 22 August 1703 8 years, 197 days
Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700 – 1827)
23 Ahmed III
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 22 August 1703 1 October 1730 27 years, 40 days
24 Mahmud I
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
KAMBUR (The Hunchback)		 2 October 1730 13 December 1754 24 years, 72 days
25 Osman III
SOFU (The Devout)		 13 December 1754 30 October 1757 2 years, 321 days
26 Mustafa III
YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative)		 30 October 1757 21 January 1774 16 years, 83 days
27 Abdul Hamid I
Abd ūl-Hāmīd (The Servant of God)
ISLAHATÇI (The Improver)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 21 January 1774 7 April 1789 15 years, 76 days
28 Selim III
BESTEKÂR (The Composer)
NİZÂMÎ (Regulative - Orderly)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr) 		7 April 1789 29 May 1807 18 years, 52 days
29 Mustafa IV 29 May 1807 28 July 1808 1 year, 60 days
Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827 – 1908)
30 Mahmud II
İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 28 July 1808 1 July 1839 30 years, 338 days
31 Abdulmejid I
TANZİMÂTÇI
(The Strong Reformist or
The Advocate of Reorganization)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)		 1 July 1839 25 June 1861 21 years, 359 days
32 Abdulaziz
BAḪTSIZ (The Unfortunate)
ŞEHĪD (The Martyr) 		25 June 1861 30 May 1876 14 years, 340 days
  • Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan;
  • Deposed by his ministers;
  • Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.[61]
33 Murad V 30 May 1876 31 August 1876 93 days
34 Abdul Hamid II
Ulû Sultân Abd ūl-Hāmīd Khan

(The Sublime Khan)

 31 August 1876 27 April 1909 32 years, 239 days
35 Mehmed V
REŞÂD (Rashād)

(The True Path Follower)

 27 April 1909 3 July 1918 9 years, 67 days
36 Mehmed VI
VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād-Dīn)

(The Unifier of Dīn (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam)

 4 July 1918 1 November 1922 4 years, 120 days
Caliph under the Republic
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
— Abdulmejid II 18 November 1922 3 March 1924 1 year, 106 days —
[c]

See also

Notes
a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultân-ı âzam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[69] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[70]
b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I adopted the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty made official the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[71] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, unsuccessfully attempting to incite the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdul Hamid II was by far the Ottoman Sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as Caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[72] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[73]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered,[74] although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul" has been identified.[20] Abdulmejid II, the last Ottoman Caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[75]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya.[65] This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdulmejid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[76] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[77] Although Abdulmejid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of Caliph until the office of the Caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[73] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[78]

References
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    • Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6. Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
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Bibliography

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