Ottoman architecture

Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire, which emerged in Bursa and Adrianople (Edirne) in 13th and 15th centuries. The architecture of the empire developed from the earlier Seljuk architecture and was influenced by the Byzantine, Iranian[1][2] as well as Islamic Mamluk architectural traditions after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans.[3][4][5] For almost 400 years, the Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques.[5] Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Byzantine-influenced architecture, synthesized with architectural traditions of the Balkans, Persia and other parts of Middle East.[6]

Blue Mosque in Istanbul, a World Heritage Site and example of the classical style period of Ottoman architecture, showing Byzantine influence.
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Today, one finds remnants of Ottoman architecture in certain parts of the former empire's territories under decay.[7]

Early Ottoman period

With the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, the years 1299–1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. This period witnessed three types of mosques: tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Hacı Özbek Mosque (1333) in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque.[8]

Bursa period (1299–1437)

The domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one. Edirne was the last Ottoman capital before Istanbul, and it is here that we witness the final stages in the architectural development that culminated in the construction of the great mosques of Istanbul. Some of the buildings constructed in Istanbul during the period between the capture of the city and the construction of the Istanbul Bayezid II Mosque are also considered late works of the early period, blending Classical period work with the influences of the Bursa period. Among these are the Fatih Mosque (1470), Mahmutpaşa Mosque, the Tiled Kiosk and the Topkapı Palace. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.

Classical period (1437–1703)

The Classical period of Ottoman architecture is to a large degree a development of the prior approaches as they evolved over the 15th and early 16th centuries and the start of the Classical period is strongly associated with the works of Mimar Sinan.[9][10] In this period, Ottoman architecture, especially with the works, and under the influence, of Sinan, saw a new unification and harmonization of the various architectural parts, elements and influences that Ottoman architecture had previously absorbed but which had not yet been harmonized into a collective whole.[9] Taking heavily from the Byzantine tradition, and in particular the influence of the Hagia Sophia, Classical Ottoman architecture was, as before, ultimately a syncretic blend of numerous influences and adaptations for Ottoman needs.[9][10] In what may be the most emblematic of the structures of this period, the classical mosques designed by Sinan and those after him used a dome-based structure, similar to that of Hagia Sophia, but among other things changed the proportions, opened the interior of the structure and freed it from the colonnades and other structural elements that broke up the inside of Hagia Sophia and other Byzantine churches, and added more light, with greater emphasis on the use of lighting and shadow with a huge volume of windows.[9][10] These developments were themselves both a mixture of influence from Hagia Sophia and similar Byzantine structures, as well as the result of the developments of Ottoman architecture from 1400 on, which, in the words of Godfrey Goodwin, had already "achieved that poetic interplay of shaded and sunlit interiors which pleased Le Corbusier."[9]

During the Classical period, mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable. The master architect of the Classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1489/1490 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities. Sinan's first important work was the Şehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Süleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, built for Suleiman the Magnificent. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568–74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect. The Rüstempaşa, Mihrimah Sultan, Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosques and the Şehzade, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Roxelana and Selim II mausoleums are among Sinan's most renowned works. Most Classical period design used the Byzantine architecture of the neighboring Balkans as its base, and from there, ethnic elements were added creating a different architectural style.

Examples of Ottoman architecture of the Classical period, aside from Turkey, can also be seen in the Balkans, Hungary, Egypt, Tunisia and Algiers, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built.

Westernization period

During the reign of Ahmed III (1703–1730) and under the impetus of his grand vizier İbrahim Paşa, a period of peace ensued. Due to its relations with France, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by the Baroque and Rococo styles that were popular in Europe. The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by Seljuk Turks, according to a number of academics.[11][12] Examples can be witnessed at Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital, a UNESCO world heritage site, Sivas Çifteminare, Konya İnce Minare museum, and many more. It is often called the Seljuk Baroque portal. From here it emerged again in Italy, and later grew in popularity among the Turks during the Ottoman era. Various visitors and envoys were sent to European cities, especially to Paris, to experience the contemporary European customs and life. The decorative elements of the European Baroque and Rococo influenced even the religious Ottoman architecture. On the other hand, Antoine Ignace Melling, a French architect, was invited to Istanbul by a sister of Sultan Selim III and depicted the Bosphorus shores and the pleasure mansions (yalıs) placed next to the sea. During a thirty-year period known as the Tulip period, all eyes were turned to the West, and instead of monumental and classical works, villas and pavilions were built around Istanbul. However, it was about this time when the construction on the Ishak Pasha Palace in Eastern Anatolia was going on, (1685–1784).

Tulip period (1703–1757)
Main article: Tulip period

Beginning with this period, the upper class and the elites in the Ottoman Empire started to use the open and public areas frequently. The traditional, introverted manner of the society began to change. Sebils and waterside residences such as Aynalıkavak Kasrı became popular. A water canal (other name is Cetvel-i Sim), a picnic area (Kağıthane) were established as recreational areas. Although the tulip age ended with the Patrona Halil uprising, it became a model for attitudes of westernization. During the years 1720–1890, Ottoman architecture deviated from the principals of classical times. With Ahmed III's death, Mahmud I took the throne (1730–1754). It was during this period that Baroque-style mosques were starting to be constructed.

Baroque period (1757–1808)

Circular, wavy and curved lines are predominant in the structures of this period. Major examples are Nur-u Osmaniye Mosque, Laleli Mosque, Zeynep Sultan Mosque, and Çakırağa Mansion. Mehmed Tahir Ağa is the important architect of the time. The aedicula containing the tomb of Jesus inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the holiest site in Christendom, has also been rebuilt in 1810 in Ottoman Baroque style.

Empire period (1808–1876)

Nusretiye Mosque, Ortaköy Mosque, Sultan Mahmut Tomb, Galata Lodge of Mevlevi Derviches, Dolmabahçe Palace, Çırağan Palace, Beylerbeyi Palace, Sadullah Pasha Yalı, Kuleli Barracks, and Selimiye Barracks are the important examples of this style developed parallel with the westernization process. Architects from the Balyan family and the Fossati brothers were the leading ones of the time.

Late period (1876–1922): The "National Architectural Renaissance"
Main article: First national architectural movement

The final period of architecture in the Ottoman Empire, developed after 1900 and in particular put into effect after the Young Turks took power in 1908–1909, is what was then called the "National Architectural Renaissance" and which gave rise to the style since referred to as the First national architectural movement of Turkish architecture.[13] The approach in this period was an Ottoman Revival style, a reaction to influences in the previous 200 years that had come to be considered "foreign," such as Baroque and Neoclassical architecture, and was intended to promote Ottoman patriotism and self-identity.[13] This was actually an entirely new style of architecture, related to earlier Ottoman architecture in rather the same manner was other roughly contemporaneous revivalist architectures related to their stylistic inspirations.[13] The Ottoman Revival architecture of this period was based on modern construction techniques and materials such as reinforced concrete, iron, steel, and often glass roofs, and in many cases used what was essentially a Beaux-Arts structure with outward stylistic motifs associated with the original architecture from which it was inspired.[13] It focused outwardly on forms and motifs seen to be traditionally "Ottoman" such as pointed arches, ornate tile decoration, wide roof overhangs with supporting brackets, domes over towers or corners, etc.[13]

Originally, this style was meant to promote the patriotism and identity of the historically multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire, but by the end of World War I and the creation of the Turkish Republic, it was adopted by the republican Turkish nationalists to promote a new Turkish sense of patriotism.[13] In this role, it continued into, and influenced the later architecture of the Republic of Turkey.

One of the earliest and most important examples of this style is the Istanbul Grand Post Office in Sirkeci, completed in 1909 and designed by Vedat Tek (also known as Vedat Bey).[13] Other important extant examples include the Istanbul ferryboat terminals built between 1913 and 1917, such as the Besiktas terminal by Ali Talat Bey (1913), the Haydarpasa terminal by Vedat Tek (1913), and the Buyukada terminal by Mihran Azaryan (1915).[13] Another examples are the Taksim Military Barracks and the Sultanahmet Jail, now the Four Seasons Hotel Sultanahmet.

In Ankara, the earliest building in the style is the building that now houses the War of Independence Museum and served as the first house of the Turkish Republic's National Assembly in 1920.[13] It was built in 1917 by Ismail Hasif Bey as the local headquarters for the Young Turks' Committee of Union and Progress.[13]

Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque, Sheikh Zafir Group of Buildings, Haydarpasha School of Medicine, Duyun-u Umumiye Building, Istanbul Title Deed Office, Large Postoffice Buildings, Laleli Harikzedegan Apartments are the important structures of this period when an eclectic style was dominant. Raimondo D'Aronco and Alexander Vallaury were the leading architects of this period in Istanbul. Apart from Vallaury and D'Aronco, the other leading architects who made important contributions to the late Ottoman architecture in Istanbul included the architects of the Balyan family, William James Smith, August Jachmund, Mimar Kemaleddin Bey, Vedat Tek and Giulio Mongeri. Serkiz Löle Gizo contributed some important architecture in Mardin. Cercis Murat Konağı, Şehidiye minaret, and P.T.T. building are some of his work.

The eclectic Ottoman Revival style, that was sometimes supplemented with Art Nouveau motifs, also had some following outside of Turkey. Especially architects in Azerbaijan, but also in parts of Iran, tried to blend local vernacular with modern construction in a similar way during the 1920s. Nikolai Bayev's Sabunchi Railway Station in Baku is an example of this revival style, with more Persian (or Seljuk) ornamentation.

Paradise garden

"The semblance of Paradise (cennet) promised the pious and devout [is that of a garden] with streams of water that will not go rank, and rivers of milk whose taste will not undergo a change, and rivers of wine delectable to drinkers, and streams of purified honey, and fruits of every kind in them, and forgiveness from their lord".(47:15)[14]

According to the Quran, paradise is described as a place, a final destination. Basically the eternal life, that is filled with "spiritual and physical" happiness.[15] Earth gardens in the Ottoman period were highly impacted by paradise, therefore connected with the arts and spaces of the everyday life, having many descriptions relating to the Qur'an.[16] Hence, Paradise gardens, or "Earthly Paradise",[17] are abstract perceptions of heaven, as a result must symbolize a serene place that shows "eternity and peace".[18]

Nature became a method for decorative patterns in architectural details and urban structure. Everything was inspired by nature and became included with nature. From the ceilings of the mosques and the walls of the palaces, kiosks and summer palaces (pavilions), which were all embellished with tiles, frescoes and hand-carved ornaments, to the kaftans, the yashmaks and so much more. Clearly paradise's nature was everywhere; in many spaces of the daily life.[19]

Without a doubt the general layout of the gardens did reflect many descriptions in the Quran, yet one of the great strengths of early Islam, was that Muslims looked at different sources and used useful ideas and techniques from diverse sources, particularly Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire).[20] Garden pavilions often took the form of square or centrally planned free-standing structures open on all sides, designed specifically to enjoy the sight, scent and music of the environment.[21] Some of the forms of the gardens were based for instance on the Hagia Sophia's atrium, which has cypresses around a central fountain, and the plantings in the mosques were given a "specifically Muslim theological interpretation". The mosques expanded its functions and services, by adding hospitals, madars, libraries, etc., and therefore gardens helped organize the elements for all the various buildings.[22]

In Islamic cities, such as the Ottoman cities, where the mosques were considered as the "focal" point,[23] it was common for mosques to have adjacent gardens.[22] Therefore, mosque structures were based somewhat to relate to the gardens. For example, the Süleymaniye Mosque had windows in the qibla wall to create continuity with the garden outside. The mihrab had stained glass windows and Iznik tiles that suggest a gate into paradise. The windows looking outwards to the garden to create the effect in which flowers from the garden act as if it would "perfume the minds of the congregation as if they have entered heaven." Also, Rüstem Pasha mosque was known for its usage of Izink tiles, where the decoration design provides a showcase for the Iznik tile industry. The inscriptions on pendentives suggest that the soul of the devout is certain to reside in paradise.[24] The main inscriptions in these mosques were of water and ponds, kiosks, fruits such as pomegranates, apples, pears, grapes, etc. Also wine, dance, music, serving women and boys, all which turn the entertainment vision into a "paradise on earth".[25]

Apart from the mosques, cities were also developed into "extremely friendly cities". They had grape arbors in shaded narrow streets, corners with trees and gardens. Trees were thought to be the balancing element of architecture that provided harmony between nature and buildings. For that reason, Ottoman cities "look as though they are extensions of the piece of land where they were built". Moreover, the usage of timber in the buildings add to the connection with nature.[19] A Turkish architect and city planner, Turgut Cansever, described the Ottoman cities as the "Ottoman paradises‟ and said that the Islamic characteristics are best represented by the Ottoman cities: "The ones who build the paradise where there exist no conflicts but all the beauties, tried to rise and open the Gates of paradise by accomplishing the task of beautifying the world."[23] The intimate relationship of architecture with nature attracted the element of trees and water. With its exclusively natural "synthesis structure", the Ottoman city was green, as many travelers have described it.[26] Also, water was a fundamental element, as was the cypress tree. Antoine Galland wrote, "Turkish gardens were conduits and little channels which took water everywhere and from which water was extracted under pressure."[27] However, there is no evidence in the first four centuries of Islam that gardens were consciously designed with four quadrants and four water channels in order to represent paradise as the Quran described it.[20]

Examples of Ottoman architecture
Examples of Ottoman architecture
StyleModern Turkish nomenclatureExample
MosqueCamiSelimiye Mosque
MadrasaMedreseCaferağa Medresseh
TürbeTürbeYeşil Türbe
CaravanseraiKervansarayBüyük Han
HospitalDarüşşifaComplex of Sultan Bayezid II
BridgeKöprüMostar bridge
PalaceSarayTopkapı Palace
CastleKaleRumelihisarı

Examples of Ottoman architecture outside Turkey

See also

References
  1. Seljuk architecture, Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.
  2. Architecture (Muhammadan), H. Saladin, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. 1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1908), 753.
  3. Necipoğlu, Gülru (1995). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12. Leiden : E.J. Brill. p. 60. ISBN 978-90-04-10314-6. OCLC 33228759. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
  4. Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1989). Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction. Leiden ; New York : E.J. Brill. p. 29. ISBN 978-90-04-08677-7. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
  5. Rice, John Gordon; Robert Clifford Ostergren (2005). "The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment". The Professional Geographer. Guilford Press. 57 (4). ISBN 978-0-89862-272-0. ISSN 0033-0124. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
  6. Grabar, Oleg (1985). Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3. Leiden : E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07611-2. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
  7. Çevikalp, Mesut (2008-08-27). "Historian Kiel spends half century tracing history of Ottoman art". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 2008-09-12. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  8. Vibhavari Jani, Diversity in Design: Perspectives from the Non-Western World, (Fairchild Books, 2011), 135.
  9. Goodwin, Godfrey (1993). Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today. London: Saqi Books. ISBN 978-0-86356-172-6.
  10. Stratton, Arthur (1972). Sinan. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-12582-4.
  11. Hoag, John D (1975). Islamic architecture. London: Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-14868-4.
  12. Aslanapa, Oktay (1971). Turkish art and architecture. London: Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-08781-5.
  13. Bozdogan, Sibel (2001). Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98152-9.
  14. Ruggles 2008, p. 89.
  15. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 8.
  16. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 45.
  17. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 44.
  18. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 47.
  19. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 67.
  20. Ruggles 2008, p. 90.
  21. Ruggles 2008, p. 107.
  22. Ruggles 2008, p. 100.
  23. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 50.
  24. Fazio, Michael; Marian Moffett; Lawrence Woodehouse (2009). Building Across Time. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 164–167.
  25. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 60.
  26. Uludas & Adiloglu 2011, p. 86.
  27. Conan, Michel (2007). Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium Series in the History of Landscape Architecture.
  28. Пеев, Христо. Д. Пловдивската къща през епохата на Възраждането. Изд. Техника. София. 1960 г.

Further reading
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