Redskin

Redskin is a slang term for Native Americans in the United States and First Nations in Canada. The term "redskin" underwent pejoration through the 19th to early 20th centuries[1] and in contemporary dictionaries of American English it is labeled "usually offensive",[2] "disparaging",[3][4] "insulting",[5] or "taboo".[6]

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Redskin (disambiguation)

The origin of the choice of "red" to describe Native Americans in English is debated. While related terms were used in anthropological literature as early as the 17th century, labels based on skin-color entered everyday speech around the middle of the 18th century. "At the start of the eighteenth century, Indians and Europeans rarely mentioned the color of each other's skins. By midcentury, remarks about skin color and the categorization of peoples by simple color-coded labels (red, white, black) had become commonplace."[7]

Although the term has almost disappeared from common use, it remains as the name of many sports teams. Most prominent was the National Football League team in Washington, D.C. After decades of resistance to change by the owner, management and fans; major sponsors responded to calls to end systemic racism in the wake of the killing of George Floyd by advocating a name change. In July 2020 the name "Washington Redskins" was retired, with a new name to be selected later.[8]

Red as a racial identifier
Main article: Color terminology for race
Further information: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

Documents from the colonial period indicate that the use of "red" as an identifier by Native Americans for themselves emerged in the context of Indian-European diplomacy in the southeastern region of North America, before later being adopted by Europeans and becoming a generic label for all Native Americans.[9]:627–28

Linguistic evidence indicates that, while some tribes may have used red to refer to themselves during the Pre-Columbian era based upon their origin stories,[9]:634 the general use of the term was in response to meeting people who called themselves "white" and their slaves "black".[9]:629 The choice of red rather than other colors may have been due to cultural associations, rather than skin color.[9]:632 Red and white were a dichotomy that had pervasive symbolic meanings in southeastern Native cultures which was less prevalent among northern tribes.[9]:632 While there was occasional use of "red" in Indian-European diplomacy in the northeast, it was still rare there even after it had become common in the southeast. Instead, "Indian" was translated into the native languages there as "men", "real people", or "original people".[9]:629–30 Usage in the northeast region by Europeans may have been largely limited to descriptions of tribes such as the Beothuk of Newfoundland, whose practice of painting their bodies and possessions with red ochre led Europeans to refer to them as "Red Indians".[10]

Early ethnographic writers used a variety of terms; olivastre (olive) by François Bernier (1684),[11] rufus (reddish, ruddy) by Linnaeus (1758)[12] kupferroth ("copper-red") by Blumenbach (1779),[13] and eventually simply "red" by René Lesson (1847).[14]

Early explorers and later Anglo-Americans termed Native Americans "light-skinned", "brown", "tawny", or "russet", but not "red" prior to the 19th century;[15]

In the modern debate over sports teams with the name, it is sometimes asserted that Oklahoma translates from Choctaw as "red people" (okla, people + humma, red).[16] However, "humma" has a number of possible meanings in Choctaw, one of which is "humma, an addition to a man's name which gives him some distinction, calling on him for courage and honor."[17] The alternative meaning of Oklahoma becomes "honorable/courageous nation" or "a brave people".[18]

Origins of redskin in English

Use of the English adjective "red" in reference to American Indians as a race is first recorded in the 1720s. The combination with "skin", to form the term "redskin", can be dated to 1769. It arises from a translation of French peaux rouges, which in turn had been written by the French translator from the Miami-Illinois language, in a letter sent by three chiefs of the Piankashaws to Col. John Wilkins. The term here refers to warriors specifically. The term "redskin" enters wider English usage only in the first half of the 19th century.[19]:4–5

Ives Goddard (2005) pointed out that what had previously been considered the earliest attestation of the term, a letter purported to have been written to an Englishman living in Hadley, Massachusetts in 1699, was spurious.[20]

Roots in Native American language

Goddard's alternative etymology is that the term emerged from the speech of Native Americans themselves, and that the origin and use of the term in the late 18th and early 19th century was benign when it first appeared "it came in the most respectful context and at the highest level. ... These are white people and Indians talking together, with the white people trying to ingratiate themselves".[21] The word later underwent a process of pejoration, by which it gained a negative connotation.[22] Goddard suggests that "redskin" emerged from French translations of Native American speech in Illinois and Missouri territories in the 18th century. He cites as the earliest example a 1769 set of "talks", or letters, from chiefs of the Piankeshaw to an English officer at Fort de Chartres. One letter included "si quelques peaux Rouges", which was translated as "if any redskins", and the second included "tout les peaux rouges", which was translated as "all the redskins".[19]:4 However, in an interview Goddard admitted that it is impossible to verify whether the native words were accurately translated.[21]

The term appeared in an August 22, 1812, meeting between President James Madison and a delegation of chiefs from western tribes. There, the response of Osage chief "No Ears" (Osage: Tetobasi) to Madison's speech included the statement, "I know the manners of the whites and the red skins," while French Crow, principal chief of the Wahpekute band of Santee Sioux, was recorded as having said, "I am a red-skin, but what I say is the truth, and notwithstanding I came a long way I am content, but wish to return from here."[19]:14–15

The earliest known appearance of the term in print occurred in 1813, in an article in the Weekly Register quoting a letter dated August 27, 1813. It concerned an expedition during the War of 1812 led by General Benjamin Howard against Indians in the Illinois and Mississippi territories: "The expedition will be 40 days out, and there is no doubt but we shall have to contend with powerful hordes of red skins ..."[23]

However, while these usages may have been earlier, they may not have been disseminated widely. (For instance, while the 1812 meeting with President Madison was contemporaneously recorded, the records were not published until 2004. Goddard suggests that a key usage was in a 20 July 1815 speech by Meskwaki chief Black Thunder at the treaty council at Portage des Sioux, in which he is recorded as stating, "My Father – Restrain your feelings, and hear ca[l]mly what I shall say. I shall tell it to you plainly, I shall not speak with fear and trembling. I feel no fear. I have no cause to fear. I have never injured you, and innocence can feel no fear. I turn to all, red skins and white skins, and challenge an accusation against me." This speech was published widely, and Goddard speculates that it reached James Fenimore Cooper. In Cooper's novels The Pioneers (published in 1823) and The Last of the Mohicans (1826), both Native American and white characters use the term. These novels were widely distributed, and can be credited with bringing the term to "universal notice". The first time the term appears in Bartlett's "Dictionary of Americanisms" (in 1858), Goddard notes, the illustrative reference is to Last of the Mohicans.[19]:15–16

Johnathan Buffalo, historic preservation director of the Meskwaki, said that in the 1800s "redskins" was used by the tribe for self-identification. Similarly, they identified others as "whiteskins" or "blackskins".[24] Goddard's evidence for Native language usage includes a 1914 phonetic transcription of the Meskwaki language in which both eesaawinameshkaata 'one with brown skin' and meeshkwinameshkaata 'one with red skin' were used to refer to Indians, while waapeshkinameshkaanichini 'one with white skin, white person' was used to refer to Europeans.[25] However, the pre-contact Meskwaki use of "red" in identifying themselves did not refer to skin color, but to their origin stories as the "red-earth" people.[26]:239

Historian Darren Reid of Coventry University states it is difficult for historians to document anything with certainty since Native Americans, as a non-literate society, did not produce the written sources upon which historians rely. Instead, what is cited as Native American usage was generally attributed to them by European writers. Any use of "red" in its various forms, including redskin, by Native Americans to refer to themselves reflected their need to use the language of the times in order to be understood by Europeans.[27]

Sociologist James V. Fenelon makes a more explicit statement that Goddard's article is poor scholarship, given that the conclusion of the origin and usage by Natives as "entirely benign" is divorced from the socio-historical realities of hostility and racism from which it emerged.[28]

Pejoration
"Pawnee the Redskin Giant", 1906 photograph

The pejoration of the term "redskin" arguably begins as soon as its introduction in the early 19th century. A linguistic analysis of 42 books published between 1875 and 1930 found that negative contexts for the use of "redskin" were significantly more frequent than positive ones. However, the use of the word "Indian" in a similarly selected set of books was nearly the same, with more frequent negative than positive contexts, indicating that it was not the term "redskin" that was loaded pejoratively, but that its usage represents a generally negative attitude towards its referent.[29] The word was first listed in Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary in 1898 as "often contemptuous."[30]

Sociologist Irving Lewis Allen suggests that slang identifiers for ethnic groups based upon physical characteristics, including "redskin", are by nature derogatory, emphasizing the difference between the speaker and the target.[31] However, Luvell Anderson of the University of Memphis, in his paper "Slurring Words", argues that for a word to be a slur, the word must communicate ideas beyond identifying a target group, and that slurs are offensive because the additional data contained in those words differentiates those individuals from otherwise accepted groups.[32] In the same sense that "nigger" originated as meaning nothing more than "black-skinned", redskin also took on an increasingly negative meaning.[22]

Some Native American activists in the 21st century, in contradiction of the etymological evidence discussed above, assert that "redskin" refers directly to the bloody, red scalp or other body part collected for bounty.[33][34] While this claim is associated in the media with litigants in the Washington Redskins trademark dispute; Amanda Blackhorse[35] and Suzan Shown Harjo,[36] the NCAI's support indicates that the belief is widespread. Goddard (2005) denies any direct connection to scalping, and says there is a lack of evidence for the claim.[19]:1[37] King (2016) argues that the lack of direct evidence for the assertion does not mean that those making the claim are "wrong to draw an association between a term that empathizes an identity based upon skin color and a history that commodified Native American body parts".[38]

The term "red-skin" was, in fact used in conjunction with scalp hunting in the 19th century. In 1863 a Winona, Minnesota, newspaper, the Daily Republican, printed an announcement: "The state reward for dead Indians has been increased to $200 for every red-skin sent to Purgatory. This sum is more than the dead bodies of all the Indians east of the Red River are worth."[39] A news story published by the Atchison Daily Champion in Atchison, Kansas, on October 9, 1885, tells of the settlers' "hunt for redskins, with a view of obtaining their scalps", worth $250.[40] In his early career as the owner of a newspaper in South Dakota, L. Frank Baum wrote an editorial upon the death of Chief Sitting Bull in which he advocates the annihilation of all remaining Redskins in order to secure the safety of white settlers, and because "better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are."[41]

The Redskin Duel, 1914 silent film. The Native American roles were played by Native and Japanese actors.

When Hollywood westerns were most popular, roughly 1920–1970, the term "redskins" was often used to refer to Native Americans when war was imminent or in progress.[42] In the Washington Redskins trademark dispute, the main issue was the meaning of the term in the period when the trademark registrations were issued, 1967–1990. The linguistic expert for the petitioner, Dr. Geoffrey Nunberg, successfully argued that whatever its origins, "redskins" was a slur at that time based upon passages from books and newspapers and movie clips, in which the word is inevitably associated with contempt, derision, condescension, or sentimental paeans to the noble savage.[43] John McWhorter, an associate professor of linguistics at Columbia University, had compared the evolution of the name into a slur to that of other racial terms such as "Oriental" which also acquired implied meanings associated with contempt.[44]

Current use
The Redskin Theater in Anadarko, Oklahoma. The town proclaims itself to be the "Indian Capital of the Nation", and its population is 41% Native American.

In the United States, "redskin" is regarded as a racial epithet by some,[45] but as neutral by others, including some Native Americans.[46] The American Heritage style guide advises that "the term redskin evokes an even more objectionable stereotype" than the use of red as a racial adjective by outsiders,[47] while others urge writers to use the term only in a historical context.[48] In modern dictionaries of American English it is labeled "usually offensive",[2] "disparaging",[3][4] "insulting",[5] or "taboo".[6]

Use among Native Americans

Three predominantly Native American schools use the name for their athletic teams, two of which serve reservations: Red Mesa High School in Teec Nos Pos, Arizona where the student body is 99% Native American.[49] and Wellpinit High School, Wellpinit, Washington.[50] The principal of Red Mesa said in 2014 that use of the word outside American Indian communities should be avoided because it could perpetuate "the legacy of negativity that the term has created."[51] In 2014, Wellpinit High School, located on the Spokane Indian Reservation, voted to keep the Redskins name.[52] Native American writer and attorney Gyasi Ross compares Native American use of variations of the word "Redskin" with African-American use of variations of the word "Nigger". Use of these terms by some members of minority communities does not mean that these words may be used by outsiders. Ross also notes that while activism on the issue may be from a minority of Native Americans, this is due to most being concerned with more immediate issues, but also says "The presentation of the name 'Redskins' is problematic for many Native Americans because it identifies Natives in a way that the vast majority of Natives simply don't identity ourselves."[53]

Sports teams
Main article: Native American mascot controversy

Numerous civil rights, educational, athletic, and academic organizations consider any use of native names/symbols by non-native sports teams to be a harmful form of ethnic stereotyping which should be eliminated.[54]

Washington Redskins
Main article: Washington Redskins name controversy
The R-word is the moral equivalent of the N-word. It packs the same level of bigotry and insensitivity for Native Americans as any other racial slur. We cannot tolerate the NFL’s continued commitment to normalizing this demeaning characterization of Native Americans. The success of the Washington football franchise does not depend on the name of its team, but rather the talent of its players and leadership. The NFL must abandon its tone-deaf culture as it relates to people of color and change the hurtful name of this team.

Marc H. Morial, President and CEO of the National Urban League[55]

The controversy regarding Native mascots in general, and use of the name Redskins, had been most prominent in the name used by the Washington National Football League team from 1933 to 2020. Public protest of the name began in 1968, with a resolution by the National Congress of American Indians.[56] Native American groups and their supporters argue that since they view the word "redskin" as offensive, it is inappropriate for an NFL team to continue to use it, regardless of whether any offense is intended.[29][57][58]

After decades of opposition to the name of the team by Native Americans, major sponsors responded to opponents of systemic racism in the wake of the killing of George Floyd. FedEx, Nike, and PepsiCo advocated changing the name. On July 3, 2020, Washington owner Daniel Snyder and team management announced a process of review of the name.[59][60] On July 13, 2020 the team made an official statement that their review would result in the retirement of the Redskins name and logo.[8] On July 23, the team temporarily changed its name to the "Washington Football Team" until a more permanent name can be revealed at a later date.[61][62]

Opinion polls
Main article: Washington Redskins name opinion polls

The results and conclusions of public opinion polls with regard to the use of Native American mascots have been criticized by scholars and Native American leaders. While polls indicate that a large majority of Native American individuals are not offended by the term "Redskins", a 2020 study at UC Berkeley which found that 49% of self-identified Native Americans responded that the Washington Redskins name was offensive or very offensive, while only 38% were not bothered by it. In addition, for study participants who were heavily engaged in their native or tribal cultures, 67% said they were offended, for young people 60%, and those with tribal affiliations 52%.[63][64] These results are similar to that found in a study by the Center for Indigenous Peoples Studies at California State University, San Bernardino. A survey of 400 individuals, with 98 individuals positively identified as Native Americans, found that 67% agreed with the statement that "Redskins" is offensive and racist. The response from non-natives was almost the opposite, with 68% responding that the name is not offensive.[65][66]

In a 2004 poll by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania, 90% of those who identified themselves as American Indians answered that they were "not bothered" by the name "Redskins" being used for the Washington football team.[67] However, in a commentary published soon after that poll, fifteen Native American scholars collaborated on a critique that stated that there were so many flaws in the Annenberg study that rather than being a measure of Native American opinion, it was an expression of white privilege and colonialism.[68] In August 2015, a memo prepared by Annenberg's Managing Director of Survey Research made it clear that the survey should not be taken as an accurate reflection of Native American attitudes at the time, since the methods used to survey the general population are not effective for generating representative samples for Native Americans, a population having unique characteristics (e.g., multiple languages, unusual residential patterns) that require specialized survey designs if they are to be measured rigorously.[69] In May 2016, The Washington Post asked the same question from the Annenberg survey in its general opinion poll when a respondent identified themselves as Native American, producing the same results, that 90% of the 504 respondents were "not bothered" by the team's name.[70][71][72] While taking steps to address some of the issues in the 2004 survey, many of the conditions remained the same, and the results were immediately criticized for similar reasons.[73][74]

Trademark case
Main article: Washington Redskins trademark dispute

On June 18, 2014, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) cancelled the six trademarks held by the team in a two-to-one decision that held that the term "redskins" is disparaging to a "substantial composite of Native Americans", and this is demonstrated "by the near complete drop-off in usage of 'redskins' as a reference to Native Americans beginning in the 1960s".[75][76] Evidence of disparagement submitted by the petitioners in the TTAB case include the frequent references to "scalping" made by sportswriters for sixty years when reporting the Redskins loss of a game,[77] and passages from movies made from the 1940s to the 1960s using "redskin" to refer to Native Americans as a savage enemy.[78] A linguistics expert for the team unsuccessfully argued that the name is merely a descriptive term no different than other uses of color to differentiate people by race.[79] The linguistic expert for the petitioners, Dr. Geoffrey Nunberg, argued that whatever its origins, "redskins" was a slur at the time of the trademark registrations, based upon the passages from books and newspapers and movie clips, in which the word is inevitably associated with contempt, derision, condescension, or sentimental paeans to the noble savage.[43] Although the USPTO decision was upheld upon appeal,[80] on June 19, 2017 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in another case, Matal v. Tam, that the disparagement clause of the Lanham Act violated the First Amendment's Free Speech Clause.[81] Both the Native American petitioners and the Justice Department withdrew from any further litigation, the legal issue being moot.[82]

College and secondary school teams

College teams that formerly used the name changed voluntarily:

The number of high schools using the Redskins name—45—has been in steady decline. In a survey conducted in 2013, 40% had local efforts to change the name, while 28 high schools in 18 states had done so.[49] By December 2017, the number of high school "Redskins" had continued to decline from 62 to 49,[83] including four affected by a 2015 California law.[84] In 2019 Teton High School in Idaho[85] and in March 2020 Paw Paw High School in Michigan[86] retired the name. In July, 2020 Anderson High School in Ohio and Clinton Community Schools in Michigan quickly voted to change their mascots after the decision by the Washington Football Team.[87][88]

See also

References
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  2. "Definition of REDSKIN". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved November 7, 2014. Definition of REDSKIN (offensive): American indian
  3. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2011. Retrieved November 7, 2014. n. Offensive Slang Used as a disparaging term for a Native American.
  4. "Redskin". Dictionary.com. Retrieved November 7, 2014. noun, Slang: Disparaging and Offensive. 1. a North American Indian.
  5. "definition of redskin". Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
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  7. Shoemaker, Nancy (2004). "Race". A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195167924.
  8. "Statement From The Washington Football Team". WashingtonFootball.com (Press release). NFL Enterprises, LLC. July 13, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
  9. Shoemaker, Nancy (1997). "How Indians Got to Be Red" (PDF). The American Historical Review. 102 (3): 625–44. doi:10.2307/2171504. JSTOR 2171504.
  10. "The Beothuk Indians – "Newfoundland's Red Ochre People"". Historica Canadiana. 6 December 2006.
  11. Anonymous [F. Bernier], "Nouvelle division de la terre par les différentes espèces ou races qui l'habitent", Journal des Sçavants, 24 April 1684, p. 133–140.
  12. Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10 Vol. 1. p. 21.
  13. Blumenbach, J. F. 1779. Handbuch der Naturgeschichte vol. 1, pp. 63f
  14. Charles Hamilton Smith, Samuel Kneeland, The Natural History of the Human Species (1851), p. 47, listing "Red Race" as one of the six races identified by René Lesson, Description de mammifères et d'oiseaux récemment découverts; précédée d'un Tableau sur les races humaines (1847), i.e. White (Caucasian), Dusky (Indian), Orange-colored (Malay), Yellow (Mongoloid), Red (Carib and American) and Black (Negroid).
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  16. Ed Doney (June 19, 2014). "If Redskins change name, should Oklahoma change its name too?". KFOR.com.
  17. "Full text of "A dictionary of the Choctaw language" by CYRUS BYINGTON". Archive.com.
  18. Kahlalin (January 30, 2017). "No, "Oklahoma" doesn't mean "red people"". Medium.com.
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  20. The letter supposedly contains both "ye Red Skin Men" and "ye Red Skins". Based on this source, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) had suggested that the term was specifically applied to the Delaware Indians and "referred not to the natural skin color of the Delaware, but to their use of vermilion face paint and body paint". Goddard pointed out that OED had mis-dated the source, the letter was in fact a piece of historical fiction written in 1900.The OED agreed with Goddard's findings, stating that the quotation was "subsequently found to be misattributed; the actual text was written in 1900 by an author claiming, for purposes of historical fiction, to be quoting an earlier letter". David Skinner (18 December 2013). "The Real History of the Word Redskin". Slate.
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  26. Jones, William (1901). "Episodes in the Culture-Hero Myth of the Sauks and Foxes". The Journal of American Folklore. 14 (55): 225–39. doi:10.2307/533350. JSTOR 533350.
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  33. Leiby, Richard (November 5, 1994). "Bury My Heart at RFK". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 June 2017. Holmes, Baxter (June 17, 2014). "A 'Redskin' Is the Scalped Head of a Native American, Sold, Like a Pelt, for Cash". Esquire Magazine. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  34. "Hunting redskins for the time being became a popular sport in New England..." Leach, Douglas Edward (1958). Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip's War. New York: WW Norton & Company. p. 237. ISBN 9780881508857.
  35. "Meet the Navajo Activist Who Got the Washington Redskins' Trademark Revoked: Amanda Blackhorse". Democracy Now!. June 19, 2014. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
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  44. John McWhorter (October 12, 2015). "Why 'Redskins' Is a Bad Word". Time Inc.
  45. "Slang epithet ... Redskin is regarded as highly offensive" to Native Americans Herbst, Philip (1997). Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 197. ISBN 1877864978.
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  52. "School board votes to keep name Wellpinit Redskins". KXLY-TV. June 19, 2014. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
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