Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure
Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure of the universe
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Pre-20th century
- 5th century BC — Democritus proposes that the bright band in the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of stars,
- 4th century BC — Aristotle believes the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions",[1]
- 964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), a Persian astronomer, makes the first recorded observations of the Andromeda Galaxy[2] and the Large Magellanic Cloud[3][4] in his Book of Fixed Stars, and which are the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth,
- 11th century — Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, another Persian astronomer, describes the Milky Way galaxy as a collection of numerous nebulous stars,[5]
- 11th century — Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham), an Arabian astronomer, refutes Aristotle's theory on the Milky Way by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax,[6] and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the Earth and did not belong to the atmosphere",[7]
- 12th century — Avempace (Ibn Bajjah) of Islamic Spain proposes the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but that it appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in the Earth's atmosphere,[1]
- 14th century — Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya of Syria proposes the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and that these stars are larger than planets,[8]
- 1521 — Ferdinand Magellan observes the Magellanic Clouds during his circumnavigating expedition,
- 1610 — Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to determine that the bright band on the sky, the "Milky Way", is composed of many faint stars
- 1750 — Thomas Wright discusses galaxies and the flattened shape of the Milky Way and speculates nebulae as separate
- 1755 — Immanuel Kant drawing on Wright's work conjectures our galaxy is a rotating disk of stars held together by gravity, and that the nebulae are separate such galaxies; he calls them Island Universes
- 1785 — William Herschel carried the first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the center.
- 1845 — Lord Rosse discovers a nebula with a distinct spiral shape
Early 20th century
- 1912 — Vesto Slipher spectrographic studies of spiral nebulae find high Doppler shifts indicating recessional velocity.
- 1917 — Heber Curtis find novae in Andromeda Nebula M31 were ten magnitudes fainter than normal giving a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs supporting the "island universes" or independent galaxies hypothesis for spiral nebulae.
- 1918 — Harlow Shapley demonstrates that globular clusters are arranged in a spheroid or halo whose center is not the Earth, and hypothesizes, correctly, that its center is the Galactic Center of the galaxy,
- 26 April 1920 — Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis debate whether Andromeda Nebula is within the Milky Way. Curtis notes dark lanes in Andromeda resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as significant Doppler shift.
- 1922 — Ernst Öpik distance determination supports Andromeda as extra-galactic object.
- 1923 — Edwin Hubble resolves the Shapley–Curtis debate by finding Cepheids in the Andromeda Galaxy, definitively proving that there are other galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
- 1930 — Robert Trumpler uses open cluster observations to quantify the absorption of light by interstellar dust in the galactic plane; this absorption had plagued earlier models of the Milky Way,
- 1932 — Karl Guthe Jansky discovers radio noise from the center of the Milky Way,
- 1933 — Fritz Zwicky applies the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and obtains evidence for unseen mass,
- 1936 — Edwin Hubble introduces the spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxy classifications,
- 1939 — Grote Reber discovers the radio source Cygnus A,
- 1943 — Carl Keenan Seyfert identifies six spiral galaxies with unusually broad emission lines, named Seyfert galaxies,
- 1949 — J. G. Bolton, G. J. Stanley, and O. B. Slee identify NGC 4486 (M87) and NGC 5128 as extragalactic radio sources,
Mid-20th century
- 1953 — Gérard de Vaucouleurs discovers that the galaxies within approximately 200 million light-years of the Virgo Cluster are confined to a giant supercluster disk,
- 1954 — Walter Baade and Rudolph Minkowski identify the extragalactic optical counterpart of the radio source Cygnus A,
- 1959 — Hundreds of radio sources are detected by the Cambridge Interferometer which produces the 3C catalogue. Many of these are later found to be distant quasars and radio galaxies
- 1960 — Thomas Matthews determines the radio position of the 3C source 3C 48 to within 5",
- 1960 — Allan Sandage optically studies 3C 48 and observes an unusual blue quasistellar object,
- 1962 — Cyril Hazard, M. B. Mackey, and A. J. Shimmins use lunar occultations to determine a precise position for the quasar 3C 273 and deduce that it is a double source,
- 1962 — Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage theorize galaxy formation by a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.
- 1963 — Maarten Schmidt identifies the redshifted Balmer lines from the quasar 3C 273
- 1973 — Jeremiah Ostriker and James Peebles discover that the amount of visible matter in the disks of typical spiral galaxies is not enough for Newtonian gravitation to keep the disks from flying apart or drastically changing shape,
- 1973 — Donald Gudehus finds that the diameters of the brightest cluster galaxies have increased due to merging, the diameters of the faintest cluster galaxies have decreased due to tidal distention, and that the Virgo cluster has a substantial peculiar velocity,
- 1974 — B. L. Fanaroff and J. M. Riley distinguish between edge-darkened (FR I) and edge-brightened (FR II) radio sources,
- 1976 — Sandra Faber and Robert Jackson discover the Faber-Jackson relation between the luminosity of an elliptical galaxy and the velocity dispersion in its center. In 1991 the relation is revised by Donald Gudehus,
- 1977 — R. Brent Tully and Richard Fisher publish the Tully–Fisher relation between the luminosity of an isolated spiral galaxy and the velocity of the flat part of its rotation curve,
- 1978 — Steve Gregory and Laird Thompson describe the Coma supercluster,
- 1978 — Donald Gudehus finds evidence that clusters of galaxies are moving at several hundred kilometers per second relative to the cosmic microwave background radiation,
- 1978 — Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, N. Thonnard, and Albert Bosma measure the rotation curves of several spiral galaxies and find significant deviations from what is predicted by the Newtonian gravitation of visible stars,
- 1978 — Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn theorize that galaxy formation occurs through the merger of smaller groups.
Late 20th century
- 1981 — Robert Kirshner, August Oemler, Paul Schechter, and Stephen Shectman find evidence for a giant void in Boötes with a diameter of approximately 100 million light years,
- 1985 — Robert Antonucci and J. Miller discover that the Seyfert II galaxy NGC 1068 has broad lines which can only be seen in polarized reflected light,
- 1986 — Amos Yahil, David Walker, and Michael Rowan-Robinson find that the direction of the IRAS galaxy density dipole agrees with the direction of the cosmic microwave background temperature dipole,
- 1987 — David Burstein, Roger Davies, Alan Dressler, Sandra Faber, Donald Lynden-Bell, R. J. Terlevich, and Gary Wegner claim that a large group of galaxies within about 200 million light years of the Milky Way are moving together towards the "Great Attractor" in the direction of Hydra and Centaurus,
- 1987 — R. Brent Tully discovers the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a structure one billion light years long and 150 million light years wide,
- 1989 — Margaret Geller and John Huchra discover the "Great Wall", a sheet of galaxies more than 500 million light years long and 200 million wide, but only 15 million light years thick,
- 1990 — Michael Rowan-Robinson and Tom Broadhurst discover that the IRAS galaxy IRAS F10214+4724 is the brightest known object in the Universe,
- 1991 — Donald Gudehus discovers a serious systematic bias in certain cluster galaxy data (surface brightness vs. radius parameter, and the method) which affect galaxy distances and evolutionary history; he devises a new distance indicator, the reduced galaxian radius parameter, , which is free of biases,
- 1992 — First detection of large-scale structure in the Cosmic microwave background indicating the seeds of the first clusters of galaxies in the early Universe
- 1995 — First detection of small-scale structure in the cosmic microwave background
- 1995 — Hubble Deep Field survey of galaxies in field 144 arc seconds across.
- 1998 — The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey maps the large-scale structure in a section of the Universe close to the Milky Way
- 1998 — Hubble Deep Field South
- 1998 — Discovery of accelerating universe
- 2000 — Data from several cosmic microwave background experiments give strong evidence that the Universe is "flat" (space is not curved, although space-time is), with important implications for the formation of large-scale structure
Early 21st century
- 2001 — First data release from the ongoing Sloan Digital Sky Survey
- 2004 — The European Southern Observatory discovers Abell 1835 IR1916, the most distant galaxy yet seen from Earth.
- 2004 — The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager begins to map the distribution of distant clusters of galaxies
- 2005 — Spitzer Space Telescope data confirm what had been considered likely since the early 1990s from radio telescope data, i.e., that the Milky Way Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy.[9][10][11]
- 2012 — Astronomers report the discovery of the most distant dwarf galaxy yet found, approximately 10 billion light-years away.[12]
- 2012 — The Huge-LQG, a large quasar group, one of the largest known structures in the universe, is discovered.[13]
- 2013 — The galaxy Z8 GND 5296 is confirmed by spectroscopy to be one of the most distant galaxies found up to this time. Formed just 700 million years after the Big Bang, expansion of the universe has carried it to its current location, about 13 billion light years away from Earth (30 billion light years comoving distance).[14]
- 2013 — The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, a massive galaxy filament and the largest known structure in the universe, was discovered through gamma-ray burst mapping.[15][16][17]
- 2014 — The Laniakea Supercluster, the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way is defined via a new way of defining superclusters according to the relative velocities of galaxies.[18][19] The new definition of the local supercluster subsumes the prior defined local supercluster, the Virgo Supercluster, as an appendage.[20][21][22][23][24]
- 2020 — Astronomers report the discovery of a large cavity in the Ophiuchus Supercluster, first detected in 2016 and originating from a supermassive black hole with the mass of 10 million solar masses. The cavity is a result of the largest known explosion in the Universe. The formerly active galactic nucleus created it by emitting radiation and particle jets, possibly as a result of a spike in supply of gas to the black hole that could have occurred if a galaxy fell into the centre of the cavity.[25][26][27]
- 2020 — Astronomers report to have discovered the disk galaxy Wolfe Disk, dating back to when the universe was only 1.5 billion years old, possibly indicating the need to revise theories of galaxy formation and evolution.[28][29][30][31]
- 2020 — The South Pole Wall is a massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of galaxies (a galaxy filament) that extends across at least 1.37 billion light-years of space, and is located approximately a half billion light-years away.[32][33][34][35][36][37]
- 2020 — After a 20-year-long survey, astrophysicists of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey publish the largest, most detailed 3D map of the universe so far, fill a gap of 11 billion years in its expansion history, and provide data which supports the theory of a flat geometry of the universe and confirms that different regions seem to be expanding at different speeds.[38][39]
See also
References
- Josep Puig Montada (September 28, 2007). "Ibn Bajja". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
- Kepple, George Robert; Glen W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. 1. Willmann-Bell, Inc. p. 18. ISBN 0-943396-58-1.
- "Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi)". Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- "Observatoire de Paris (LMC)". Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
- Mohamed, Mohaini (2000). Great Muslim Mathematicians. Penerbit UTM. pp. 49–50. ISBN 983-52-0157-9.
- Hamid-Eddine Bouali; Mourad Zghal; Zohra Ben Lakhdar (2005). "Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography" (PDF). The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
- Livingston, John W. (1971). "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 91 (1): 96–103 [99]. doi:10.2307/600445. JSTOR 600445.
- Britt, Robert Roy. "Milky Way’s Central Structure Seen with Fresh Clarity."
- SPACE.com 16 August 2005.
- Devitt, Terry "Galactic survey reveals a new look for the Milky Way." Archived 2006-02-09 at the Wayback Machine 16 August 2005
- "Dark matter galaxy hints seen 10bn light-years away". BBC News. 2012-01-18.
- Wall, Mike (2013-01-11). "Largest structure in universe discovered". Fox News.
- Morelle, Rebecca (2013-10-23). "'Most distant galaxy' discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-07-28.
- Horvath I.; Hakkila J. & Bagoly Z. (2014). "Possible structure in the GRB sky distribution at redshift two". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 561: L12. arXiv:1401.0533. Bibcode:2014A&A...561L..12H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323020. S2CID 24224684.
- Horvath I.; Hakkila J. & Bagoly Z. (2013). "The largest structure of the Universe, defined by Gamma-Ray Bursts". arXiv:1311.1104. Bibcode:2013arXiv1311.1104H. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - Klotz, Irene (2013-11-19). "Universe's Largest Structure is a Cosmic Conundrum". discovery. Retrieved 2013-11-22.
- Tully, R. Brent; Courtois, Hélène; Hoffman, Yehuda; Pomarède, Daniel (Sep 2014). "The Laniakea supercluster of galaxies". Nature. 513 (7516): 71–73. arXiv:1409.0880. Bibcode:2014Natur.513...71T. doi:10.1038/nature13674. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25186900. S2CID 205240232.
- Tempel, Elmo (2014-09-01). "Cosmology: Meet the Laniakea supercluster". Nature. 513 (7516): 41–42. Bibcode:2014Natur.513...41T. doi:10.1038/513041a. PMID 25186896. S2CID 4459417.
- "Newly identified galactic supercluster is home to the Milky Way". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. ScienceDaily. 3 September 2014.
- Irene Klotz (2014-09-03). "New map shows Milky Way lives in Laniakea galaxy complex". Reuters. Reuters.
- Elizabeth Gibney (3 September 2014). "Earth's new address: 'Solar System, Milky Way, Laniakea'". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.15819.
- Quenqua, Douglas (3 September 2014). "Astronomers Give Name to Network of Galaxies". New York Times. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
- Carlisle, Camille M. (3 September 2014). "Laniakea: Our Home Supercluster". Sky and Telescope. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- Overbye, Dennis (6 March 2020). "This Black Hole Blew a Hole in the Cosmos - The galaxy cluster Ophiuchus was doing just fine until WISEA J171227.81-232210.7 — a black hole several billion times as massive as our sun — burped on it". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- "Biggest cosmic explosion ever detected left huge dent in space". The Guardian. 27 February 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
- Giacintucci, S.; Markevitch, M.; Johnston-Hollitt, M.; Wik, D. R.; Wang, Q. H. S.; Clarke, T. E. (27 February 2020). "Discovery of a Giant Radio Fossil in the Ophiuchus Galaxy Cluster". The Astrophysical Journal. 891 (1): 1. arXiv:2002.01291. Bibcode:2020ApJ...891....1G. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab6a9d. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 211020555.
- Overbye, Dennis (20 May 2020). "The Galaxy That Grew Up Too Fast". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
- "ALMA discovers massive rotating disk in early universe". phys.org. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
- Strickland, Ashley. "Astronomers find the Wolfe Disk, an unlikely galaxy, in the distant universe". CNN. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
- Neeleman, Marcel; Prochaska, J. Xavier; Kanekar, Nissim; Rafelski, Marc (May 2020). "A cold, massive, rotating disk galaxy 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang". Nature. 581 (7808): 269–272. arXiv:2005.09661. Bibcode:2020Natur.581..269N. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2276-y. PMID 32433621. S2CID 218718343.
- Pomarède, Daniel; et al. (10 July 2020). "Cosmicflows-3: The South Pole Wall". The Astrophysical Journal. 897 (2): 133. arXiv:2007.04414. Bibcode:2020ApJ...897..133P. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9952. S2CID 220425419. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- Pomerede, D.; et al. (January 2020). "The South Pole Wall". Harvard University. 235. p. 453.01. Bibcode:2020AAS...23545301P. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- Staff (10 July 2020). "Astronomers map massive structure beyond Laniakea Supercluster". University of Hawaii. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- Overbye, Dennis (10 July 2020). "Beyond the Milky Way, a Galactic Wall - Astronomers have discovered a vast assemblage of galaxies hidden behind our own, in the "zone of avoidance."". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- Mann, Adam (10 July 2020). "Astronomers discover South Pole Wall, a gigantic structure stretching 1.4 billion light-years across". Live Science. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- Starr, Michelle (14 July 2020). "A Giant 'Wall' of Galaxies Has Been Found Stretching Across The Universe". ScienceAlert.com. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- "Largest-ever 3D map of the universe released by scientists". Sky News. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
- "No need to Mind the Gap: Astrophysicists fill in 11 billion years of our universe's expansion history". SDSS. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
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| Structure | |
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| Energetic galaxies | |
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