Yiddish grammar

Yiddish nouns are classified into one of three grammatical genders: masculine (זכר zokher), feminine (נקבה nekeyve) and neuter (נײטראַל neytral). To a large extent, the gender of a noun is unpredictable, though there are some regular patterns:

• nouns denoting specifically male humans and animals are usually masculine, and nouns denoting specifically female humans and animals are usually feminine
• nouns ending in an unstressed schwa are usually feminine
• nouns built on most of the common abstract noun suffixes, such as ונג- -ung and הײַט- -hayt, are feminine
• diminutive nouns with the suffix -l are neuter in the standard language
• loanwords are generally assigned masculine gender by default unless they end in a schwa, in which case they are usually feminine.

There are three grammatical cases in Yiddish: nominative, accusative and dative. The nominative case generally is used for the subject, the accusative for the direct object and the dative for an indirect object or object of a preposition. Nouns themselves are normally not inflected for case, and case is indicated by the inflection of a related definite article or adjective. In a few situations, case inflection of the noun is optional or obligatory, including certain kinship terms (טאַטע tate 'father', מאַמע mame 'mother') and the words ייִד yid 'Jew' and האַרץ harts 'heart'. In those cases, masculine nouns take the ending ן- -n in the accusative and dative singular, and feminine and neuter nouns take ן- -n only in the dative singular.

Yiddish does not have a genitive case. However, when the possessor is a human or occasionally other living beings, possession may be indicated with a suffixed ס- -s (like English possessive -'s). Otherwise, possession is normally indicated by the preposition פֿון fun 'of'.

Another genitive-like construction, the quantitative, is used to describe quantities of objects: אַ פֿול גלאָז הייסע טיי a ful gloz heyse tey (a full cup of hot tea); אַ גרופּע יונגע מענטשן a grupe yunge mentshn (a group of young people). The noun phrase representing the quantity is simply followed by noun representing the object described. This construction may not be used if the object has a definite article: אַ פֿול גלאָז פֿון דער הייסער טיי a ful gloz fun der heyser tey (a full cup of the hot tea).

There are two regular plural suffixes. For nouns ending in an unstressed vowel, the plural is regularly formed with the suffix -s; e.g., the plural of גרופּע grupe 'group' is גרופּעס grupes. For nouns ending in a consonant, the plural is regularly formed with -n; the plural of טיש tish 'table' is טישן tishn.

A very large number of nouns use irregular plural forms, including -es (these are usually nouns of Slavic origin), and -er with umlaut (e.g., מאַן man 'man', cf מענער mener 'men'; קינד kind 'child', cf קינדער kinder 'children'), or umlaut alone (e.g., האַנט hant 'hand', cf הענט hent 'hands'). Some words do not change in the plural (e.g., פֿיש fish 'fish'). Nouns built on the diminutive suffixes -l and -ele form the plural in -ekh (e.g., מײדל meydl 'girl', cf. מײדלעך meydlekh 'girls').

Most words of Hebrew origin use the Hebrew plural suffixes, either -im (e.g., ספֿר seyfer 'holy book', cf. ספֿרים sforim 'holy books') or -es from Hebrew ות- -ot (e.g., סוד sod 'secret', cf. סודות soydes 'secrets'). As these examples show, many plurals of Hebrew origin involve stem mutation in addition to the suffix, paralleling the original Hebrew. Not all words of Hebrew origin form their plurals in the same way they do in Hebrew: e.g., קול kol 'voice' has the plural קולער keler, formed with the Germanic-origin -er suffix and umlaut; and טלית tales 'tallit' uses the -ot plural in Hebrew but the -im plural in Yiddish טליתים taleysim.

Yiddish verbs are conjugated for person (first, second, and third) and number (singular and plural) in the present tense. In the imperative, they conjugate only for number. Nonfinite verb forms are the infinitive and the past participle.

The infinitive of a verb is formed with the suffix ן- -n (which takes the form ען- -en in certain phonological contexts). The imperative uses the base form of the verb with no affixes in the singular, and takes the suffix ט- -t in the plural. In the present tense, the first-person singular takes the base form of the verb; the other person/number combinations are regularly inflected according to the following table:

A present participle, functioning as a derived adjective or adverb, is regularly constructed by adding the suffix דיק- -dik to the infinitive.

The past participle is used extensively in Yiddish. The majority of verbs (so-called weak verbs) form the past participle by adding the prefix -גע ge- and the suffix ט- -t to the stem, e.g. געקויפֿט gekoyft 'bought'. However, strong verbs form the past participle with -גע and ן- -n, usually accompanied by a vowel change, e. g. געהאָלפֿן geholfn 'helped' from the stem -העלפֿ helf- 'help'. The vowel change is unpredictable, and there is no way to tell from the infinitive whether a verb is weak or strong.

The prefix -גע is omitted in past participles of verbs whose first syllable does not bear primary stress. There are two classes of verbs for which this happens: verbs with one of several unstressed stem prefixes, such as -פֿאַר far- or -באַ ba-; and verbs built on the stressed suffix יר- -ir, usually used for loanwords. Thus the past participles of פֿאַרקויפֿן farkoyfn 'to sell' and אַבאָנירן abonirn 'to subscribe' are, respectively, merely פֿאַרקויפֿט farkoyft and אַבאָנירט abonirt.

Some participles vary between dialects and registers; for example, געווען geven is the usual past participle of זיַין zayn 'be', but געוועזן gevezn (normally an adjective meaning 'former') may be used as the past participle in a "Daytshmerish" (Standard German–imitating) register.

The table below shows the inflection of various Yiddish verbs. Most verbs are generally regular, with irregularities occurring predominantly in the past participle.

The following table shows some additional irregular past participles:

Like German, Yiddish has a family of separable verbs. These are verb stems cooccurring with a particle that sometimes occurs as a prefix attached to the verb stem and sometimes as a separate word. The particle appears separate from the verb in the present tense, but is attached as a prefix in the infinitive and participle. For example, in אויסזאָגן oyszogn 'to reveal', the particle אויס oys is attached to the verb; but in the present tense זאָגט אויס zogt oys 'reveals', the particle appears as a separate word. In the past participle, the particle appears before the prefix ge-, as in אויסגעזאָגט oysgezogt 'revealed'.

The same grammatical structure of separable verbs is used for a class called "periphrastic verbs". In these, the uninflected particle, often a loanword from Hebrew, carries the main meaning, and it is accompanied by an inflected light verb. For example, in תּשובֿה טאָן tshuve ton 'repent', the word תּשובֿה tshuve is a Hebrew loanword meaning 'repentance', acting grammatically as a particle accompanying the verb טאָן ton 'do'.

The periphrastic-verb construction mechanism allows Yiddish to borrow many Hebrew verbs and verbal constructions. Present-participle forms of active Hebrew verbs are used as particles accompanying the light verb זײַן (zayn 'be'), while present participles of passive Hebrew verbs accompany the light verb ווערן (vern 'become'):

• מסכּים זײַן (maskem zayn 'to agree')
• קונה־שם זײַן (koyne-shem zayn 'to gain popularity')
• נעלם ווערן (nelm vern 'to disappear')
• זיך נתגלגל ווערן (zikh nisgalgl vern 'to reincarnate')

The Hebrew verb paradigm nispoel/nitpael, marginalized in Modern Hebrew due to its overlap with hitpael, is much more common in Yiddish.[4] Hence the word for "to be impressed" is נתפּעל ווערן nispoel vern, as opposed to מתפּעל ווערן as a Modern Hebrew speaker might expect.

Like other varieties of High German and unlike literary German, Yiddish does not have the inflected past tense (preterite). Instead, the auxiliary verbs האָבן hobn 'to have' or זײַן zayn 'to be' are used with the past participle of the verb to construct the past tense. Most verbs take האָבן hobn; for example, the past tense of איך קויף ikh koyf 'I buy' is איך האָב געקויפֿט ikh hob gekoyft 'I bought'. About 30 intransitive verbs of motion or status and some of their derivatives take זײַן zayn; e.g., the past tense of איך קום ikh kum 'I come' is איך בין געקומען ikh bin gekumen 'I came'. Transitive derivatives of these exceptional verbs usually take האָבן hobn: e.g., זײַן zayn is used with the intransitive גײן geyn 'go', but האָבן hobn is used with the derived transitive separable verb איבערגײן ibergeyn 'go across'.

The future tense in Yiddish is formed with a special auxiliary verb וועלן veln followed by the infinitive. As shown in the table above, its inflection is irregular.

The pluperfect is formed by adding the modifier געהאַט gehat (the past participle of האָבן hobn 'have') to the past tense: איך האָב געהאַט געזאָגט ikh hob gehat gezogt ('I had said'); איר זענט געהאַט געגאַנגען ir zent gehat gegangen (you had gone). The Future perfect tense is formed with the future tense auxiliary followed by the auxiliary verb האָבן and the participle of the verb: איך וועל האָבן געזאָגט ikh vel hobn gezogt (I will have said). These tenses are both very infrequent, especially in the spoken language. When the context makes the previousness of action clear, the ordinary past or future is used instead, and usually with an adverb such as שוין shoyn (already) or פֿריִער friër (earlier).

The auxiliary verb פֿלעגן (flegn), in combination with the infinitive (or participle, in some dialects), is used to form a habitual past aspect: for example, איך פֿלעג קומען ikh fleg kumen (I used to come).

The auxiliary וואָלט (volt), accompanying the past participle, is used to form a conditional mood: איך וואָלט געגאַנגען ikh volt gegangen 'I would have gone'.

A "momental" aspect, expressing a one-time action, may be formed by the light verbs טאָן (ton, 'do') or געבן (gebn, 'give') followed by an indefinite article and a verbal noun, similar to such English expressions as 'have a look'. The verbal noun may be modified by adjectives, as in 'have a good look' in English. The form with געבן is more emphatic and requires the dative for the verbal noun. If the verb is separable, the particle usually stands between the auxiliary and the noun.

Unlike English, such forms in Yiddish are highly systematic and may be used with virtually any verb. The nouns used sometimes appear only in the context of the verbal aspect. For example, אַ שרײַב געבן a shrayb gebn, meaning 'hurriedly or suddenly write', contains a noun שרײַב shrayb which would not normally be used independently, and which may be translated as 'an act of writing'.

Examples: זי האָט אים געטאָן אַ כאַפּ אָן zi hot im geton a khap on ('she gave him a grab on'); מיר גיבן אַ שרײַ אויס mir gibn a shray oys ('we give a scream out').

The perfective aspect—indicating a completed action in the past or one whose completion is contemplated in the future—can be formed by adding a prefix or separable particle to many verbs. For example, the verb לייענען leyenen 'read' may be made perfective with the separable particle איבער iber or דורך durkh. Thus איך האָב געלייענט ikh hob geleyent means 'I read', 'I was reading'; while איך האָב איבערגעלייענט or איך האָב דורכגעלייענט ikh hob ibergeleyent / ikh hob durkhgeleyent means 'I read entirely', 'I read through'. Further examples:

• ער וועט שרײַבן er vet shraybn 'he will write', 'he will do some writing'
  ער וועט אָנשרײַבן er vet onshraybn 'he will write completely', 'he will write up', 'he will get (something) written'
• מיר לערנען זיך פֿראַנצייזיש mir lernen zikh frantseyzish 'we are studying French', 'we are taking French'
  מיר ווילן זיך אויסלערנען פֿראַנצייזיש mir viln zikh oyslernen frantseyzish 'we want to learn French thoroughly'

The most common perfectivizing elements are the particles דורך ,איבער ,אָן ,אָפּ ,אויס (oys, op, on, iber, durkh) and the prefixes דער־ and צו־ (der-, tsu-), but there are no definitive rules for determining which of these are used with which verbs.

Various other aspects, generally paralleling the complex aspect system of the Slavic languages, are formed by auxiliary verbs or prefixes, sometimes combined with the reflexive particle זיך (zikh). Different aspects may be combined, if the logic of the sentence allows for it. Examples: איך פֿלעג געבן אַ שרײַב אָן ikh fleg gebn a shrayb on (I used to suddenly start and complete writing); זיי נעמען זיך צעלאַכן zey nemen zikh tselakhn (they start bursting into laughter).[5]