Indigenous languages of the Americas

Indigenous languages of the Americas are spoken by indigenous peoples from Alaska, Nunavut, and Greenland to the southern tip of South America, encompassing the land masses that constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families, as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages.

"Amerindian language" redirects here. For the proposed language family, see Amerind languages.
Yucatec Maya writing in the Dresden Codex, ca. 11–12th century, Chichen Itza

Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made, such as Joseph Greenberg's Amerind hypothesis.[1] This scheme is rejected by nearly all specialists, due to the fact that some of the languages differ too significantly to draw any connections between them.[2]

According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages are critically endangered, and many are already extinct.[3] The most widely spoken indigenous language is Southern Quechua, with about 6 to 7 million speakers, primarily in South America. In the United States, 372,000 people speak an indigenous language at home.[4]

Background
Further information: Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Thousands of languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans. These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century (the voyages of Christopher Columbus). Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems,[5] the best known being the Maya script.[6] The indigenous languages of the Americas had widely varying demographics, from the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl, which had millions of active speakers, to many languages with only several hundred speakers. After pre-Columbian times, several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas, based on European, indigenous and African languages.

The European colonizers and their successor states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the Tupi language.[7] In many Latin American colonies, Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and culture in order to preach to the natives in their own tongue and relate the Christian message to their indigenous religions. In the British American colonies, John Eliot of the Massachusetts Bay Colony translated the Bible into the Massachusett language, also called Wampanoag, or Natick (1661–1663); he published the first Bible printed in North America, the Eliot Indian Bible.

The Europeans also suppressed use of indigenous American languages, establishing their own languages for official communications, destroying texts in other languages, and insisting that indigenous people learn European languages in schools. As a result, indigenous American languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. By the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch, brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, had become the official or national languages of modern nation-states of the Americas.

Many indigenous languages have become critically endangered, but others are vigorous and part of daily life for millions of people. Several indigenous languages have been given official status in the countries where they occur, such as Guaraní in Paraguay. In other cases official status is limited to certain regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in de facto official use. Examples are Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts.

In North America and the Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut[8] as its sole official language. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language, with more than 200,000 speakers in the Southwestern United States. The US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II.

Origins
See also: Settlement of the Americas

In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (1997), Lyle Campbell lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.[9]

  1. A single, one-language migration (not widely accepted)
  2. A few linguistically distinct migrations (favored by Edward Sapir)
  3. Multiple migrations
  4. Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages)
  5. The influx of already diversified but related languages from the Old World
  6. Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived)
  7. Migration along the Pacific coast instead of by the Bering Strait

Roger Blench (2008) has advocated the theory of multiple migrations along the Pacific coast of peoples from northeastern Asia, who already spoke diverse languages. These proliferated in the New World.[10]

Numbers of speakers
  • Bullet points represent minority language status
List of Widely Spoken and Officially Recognized Languages
LanguageNumber of speakers Official RecognitionSource
Southern Quechua 6,080,000  Bolivia (Official Language)

 Peru (Official Language)

  [[|]]Haiti} Template:Hayiti }( Official Language  [[|]]Dominican Republic}}

\Arawawak

 1,500.000

 Jujuy, Argentina

 [11]
Guaraní 4,850,000  Paraguay (Official Language)

 Bolivia

 Corrientes, Argentina

 Brazil (Official Language in Tacuru,  Mato Grosso do Sul)

 Mercosur

 [12]
Kʼicheʼ 2,330,000  Guatemala

 Mexico

 [13]
Nahuatl 1,688,261  Mexico [14]
Aymara 1,677,100  Bolivia

 Peru

 [15][16]
Kichwa 1,200,000  Ecuador Colombia ( Cauca, Nariño, Putumayo) [17]
Ancash Quechua 918,000  Peru [18]
Yucatec Maya 851,316  Mexico

 Belize

 [19]
Qʼeqchiʼ 800,000  Guatemala

 Belize

 Mexico

 [20]
Tzeltal 524,823  Mexico [21]
Mixtec 500,934  Mexico [22]
Mam 478,000  Guatemala

 Mexico
Tzotzil 460,374  Mexico [23]
Zapotec 450,431  Mexico [24]
Kaqchikel 450,000  Guatemala

 Mexico

 [25]
Wayuunaiki 320,000  La Guajira,  Colombia
Otomi 304,985  Mexico [26]
Totonaco 261,946  Mexico [27]
Mapuche 258,620 Cautín Province, La Araucanía,  Chile (Galvarino, Padre Las Casas) [28]
Ch'ol 241,073  Mexico [29]
Mazateco 233,022  Mexico [30]
Garífuna 190,000  Guatemala

 Belize

 North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua

 Honduras (Atlántida, Colón, Gracias a Dios)

 [31]
Miskito 180,000  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua

 Honduras (Gracias a Dios)
Huasteco 169,364  Mexico [32]
Navajo 169,359  Navajo Nation, United States [33]
Yaru Quechua 150,000  Peru [34]
Mazahua 146,398  Mexico [35]
Purepecha/Tarasco 136,864  Mexico [36]
Chinanteco 135,033  Mexico [37]
Ixil 135,000  Guatemala

 Mexico
Mixe 129,852  Mexico [38]
Tlapaneco 127,780  Mexico [39]
Cree 96,260  Northwest Territories, Canada [40]
Poqomchiʼ 92,000  Guatemala
Ojibwe 90,000  Canada

 United States

 [41]
Jakaltek 90,000  Guatemala

 Mexico
Tz’utujil 99,300  Guatemala
Achí 85,552  Guatemala
Tarahumara 85,018  Mexico
Qʼanjobʼal 81,000  Guatemala

 Mexico
Chuj 61,630  Guatemala

 Mexico
Kuna 61,000 Chocó,  Colombia

Antioquia,  Colombia
Paez 60,000  Colombia ( Cauca, Huila,  Valle del Cauca)
Amuzgo 55,588  Mexico
Tojolabʼal 51,733  Mexico
Kalaallisut 49,826 §(estimated as per persons born in Greenland)  Greenland, Denmark [42]
Tikuna 47,000  Amazonas,  Brazil, Amazonas,  Colombia (Leticia, Puerto Nariño) [43]
Chatino 45,000  Mexico
Huichol 44,800  Mexico
Mayo 39,600  Mexico
Inuktitut 39,475  Nunavut, Canada

 Northwest Territories, Canada

 [44]
Chontal Maya 37,072  Mexico
Wichi 36,135  Chaco, Argentina
Tepehuán 36,000  Mexico
Soteapanec 35,050  Mexico
Shuar 35,000  Ecuador [45]
Blackfoot 34,394  Alberta,  Canada,  Montana,  United States [46]
Sikuani 34,000  Colombia ( Meta, Vichada, Arauca, Guainía, Guaviare)
Kom 31,580  Chaco, Argentina
Poqomam 30,000  Guatemala
Ch'orti' 30,000  Guatemala
Kaiwá 26,500  Mato Grosso do Sul,  Brazil [43]
Sioux 25,000  South Dakota, United States [47]
Oʼodham 23,313 Tohono Oʼodham Nation, United States

Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community, United States

 Mexico
Kaigang 22,000  Brazil [43]
Guambiano 21,000  Cauca,  Colombia
Cora 20,100  Mexico
Yanomamö 20,000  Brazil

 Venezuela

 [43]
Nheengatu 19,000 São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil Colombia

 Venezuela

 [48]
Yup'ik (Central Alaskan) & Siberian) 18,626  Alaska, United States
Huave 17,900  Mexico [49]
Yaqui 17,546  Mexico
Piaroa 17,000 Vichada,  Colombia
Sakapultek 15,000  Guatemala
Western Apache 14,012 San Carlos Apache Nation, United States

Fort Apache Indian Reservation, United States
Xavante 13,300  Mato Grosso,  Brazil [43]
Keresan 13,073  New Mexico, United States
Cuicatec 13,000  Mexico
Awa Pit 13,000 Nariño,  Colombia
Cherokee 12,320 Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians,  North Carolina, United States

Cherokee Nation of  Oklahoma, United States
Karu 12,000 Guaviare,  Colombia

São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil (Baníwa language)
Awakatek 11,607  Guatemala

 Mexico
Chipewyan 11,325  Northwest Territories, Canada [50]
Pame 11,000  Mexico
Wounaan 10,800  Colombia ( Chocó,  Cauca,  Valle del Cauca)
Choctaw 10,368 Choctaw Nation of  Oklahoma, United States [51]
Moxo 10,000  Bolivia
Kogi 9,900  Magdalena,  Colombia
Zuni 9,620  New Mexico, United States [52]
Guajajara 9,500  Maranhão,  Brazil [43]
Sumo 9,000  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua
Mopan 9,000–12,000  Guatemala

 Belize

 [53]
Tepehua 8,900  Mexico
Mawé 8,900  Pará,  Amazonas,  Brazil [43]
Terena 8,200  Mato Grosso do Sul,  Brazil [43]
Sipakapense 8,000  Guatemala
Ika 8,000  Cesar,  Colombia

 Magdalena,  Colombia
Tukano 7,100 São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil

Vaupés,  Colombia

 [46]
Minica Huitoto 6,800 Amazonas,  Colombia
Hopi 6,780  Arizona, United States [54]
Piapoco 6,400  Colombia (Guainía, Vichada, Meta)
Cubeo 6,300 Vaupés,  Colombia
Kayapo 6,200  Pará,  Mato Grosso ,  Brazil [46]
Yukpa 6,000  Cesar,  Colombia
Chiquitano 5,900  Bolivia Mato Grosso,  Brazil
Guarayu 5,900  Bolivia
Macushi 5,800  Roraima,  Amazonas,  Brazil

 Venezuela

 Guyana

 [46]
Chimané 5,300  Bolivia
Tewa 5,123  New Mexico, United States
Timbira 5,100  Maranhão,  Tocantins,  Pará,  Brazil [55]
Muscogee 5,072 Creek Nation,  Oklahoma, United States [56]
Chontal of Oaxaca 5,039  Mexico [57]
Tektitek 5,000  Guatemala
Barí 5,000  Cesar,  Colombia

Norte de Santander,  Colombia
Sanumá 5,000  Brazil Venezuela [58]
Camsá 4,000 Putumayo,  Colombia
Kulina 3,900  Amazonas,  Brazil Peru [58]
Crow 3,862  Montana,  United States
Mohawk 3,875  Ontario,  Quebec,  Canada

 New York,  United States

 [59][60]
Kashinawa 3,588  Brazil,  Peru
Munduruku 3,563  Pará,  Amazonas,  Brazil [58]
Tunebo/Uwa 3,550 Boyacá,  Colombia
Ayoreo 3,160  Bolivia
Desano 3,160 Amazonas,  Colombia
Wapishana 3,154  Roraima,  Brazil (Official language in Bomfim, Roraima)

 Guyana

 [61][58]
Yaminawa 3,129  Bolivia
Moquoit 3,000  Chaco, Argentina
Inupiat 3,000  Alaska, United States

 Northwest Territories, Canada
Puinave 3,000 Guainía,  Colombia
Cuiba 2,900  Colombia ( Casanare, Vichada, Arauca)
Tupi-Mondé 2,886  Rondônia,  Brazil [58]
Yuracaré 2,700  Bolivia
Wanano 2,600 Vaupés,  Colombia
Shoshoni 2,512  United States
Bora 2,400 Amazonas,  Colombia
Cofán 2,400  Colombia ( Nariño, Putumayo)
Kanamari 2,298  Amazonas,  Brazil [58]
Fox (Mesquakie-Sauk-Kickapoo) 2,288  Sac and Fox Nation, United States

 Mexico
Waiwai 2,217  Brazil,  Guyana
Karajá 2,137  Brazil [58]
Huarijio 2,136  Mexico
Slavey 2,120  Northwest Territories, Canada
Chichimeca 2,100  Mexico
Koreguaje 2,100 Caquetá,  Colombia
Xerente 2,051  Tocantins,  Brazil [58]
Uspanteko 2,000  Guatemala
Fulniô 1,871  Pernambuco,  Brazil [58]
Pakaásnovos (wari) 1,854  Rondônia,  Brazil [58]
Wiwa 1,850  Cesar,  Colombia
Weenhayek 1,810  Bolivia
Matlatzinca 1,800  Mexico
Tacana 1,800  Bolivia
Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì 1,735  Northwest Territories, Canada
Cavineña 1,700  Bolivia
Jupda 1,700 Amazonas,  Colombia
Zacatepec Mixtec 1,500  Mexico
Seneca 1,453 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada [62]
Movima 1,400  Bolivia
Tlingit 1,360  Alaska, United States
Inuinnaqtun 1,310  Nunavut, Canada

 Northwest Territories, Canada
Kiowa 1,274  Oklahoma,  United States
Ka'apor 1,241  Maranhão,  Brazil [58]
Aleut 1,236  Alaska, United States
Gwichʼin 1,217  Alaska, United States

 Northwest Territories, Canada
Inuvialuktun 1,150  Nunavut, Canada

 Northwest Territories, Canada
Arapaho 1 087  United States
Macuna 1,032 Vaupés,  Colombia
Guayabero 1,000  Colombia ( Meta, Guaviare)
Comanche 963  United States
Chocho 810  Mexico
Maricopa/Piipaash 800 Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community,  Arizona, United States
Rama 740  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua
Seri 729  Mexico [63]
Ese Ejja 700  Bolivia
Nukak 700 Guaviare,  Colombia
Pima Bajo 650  Mexico
Cayuvava 650  Bolivia
Chácobo-Pakawara 600  Bolivia
Lacandon 600  Mexico
Oneida 574 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada

Oneida Nation of the Thames,  Ontario, Canada

 [64][65][66]
Cocopah 515  Mexico [67]
Sirionó 500  Bolivia
Siona 500 Putumayo,  Colombia
Havasupai–Hualapai 445 Havasupai Indian Reservation,  Arizona, United States [68]
Kumeyaay 427 (525 including Ipai and Tiipai languages)  Mexico [69][70]
Tembé 420  Maranhão,  Brazil [58]
Yurok 414  California,  United States
Alutiiq/Sugpiaq 400  Alaska, United States
Tatuyo 400 Vaupés,  Colombia
Andoque 370 Caquetá,  Colombia
Guajá 365  Maranhão,  Brazil
Chimila 350  Magdalena,  Colombia
Koyukon 300  Alaska, United States
Hitnü 300 Arauca,  Colombia
Mikasuki 290  Georgia (U.S. state),  Florida,  United States [71]
Quechan 290 [72]
Cabiyari 270 Mirití-Paraná, Amazonas,  Colombia
Reyesano 250  Bolivia
Achagua 250 Meta,  Colombia
Kakwa 250 Vaupés,  Colombia
Yavapai 245  Arizona,  United States [73]
Siriano 220 Vaupés,  Colombia
Mojave 200  Arizona,  United States [74]
Paipai 200  Mexico [75]
Toromono 200  Bolivia
Ixcatec 190  Mexico
Ocaina 190 Amazonas,  Colombia
Haida 168  Alaska, United States

Council of the Haida Nation, Canada
Muinane 150 Amazonas,  Colombia
Deg Xinag 127  Alaska, United States
Warázu 125  Bolivia
Araona 110  Bolivia
Upper Tanana 100  Alaska, United States
Itene 90  Bolivia
Ahtna 80  Alaska, United States
Tsimshian 70  Alaska, United States
Tanacross 65  Alaska, United States
Cayuga 61 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada

Cattaraugus Reservation,  New York, United States

 [76]
Denaʼina 50  Alaska, United States
Onondaga 50 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada [77]
Bauré 40  Bolivia
Upper Kuskokwim 40  Alaska, United States
Tanana 30  Alaska, United States
Ayapaneco 24  Mexico [78]
Leco 20  Bolivia
Xincan 16  Guatemala
Hän 12  Alaska, United States
Holikachuk 12  Alaska, United States
Carijona 6  Colombia ( Amazonas, Guaviare)
Itonama 5  Bolivia
Kiliwa 4  Mexico
Tuscarora 3 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada

Tuscarora Reservation,  New York, United States

 [79]
Nonuya 2 Amazonas,  Colombia
Cochimí 0  Mexico (Extinct, but retains recognition)
Kallawaya 0  Bolivia (Extinct, but retains recognition)
Eyak 0  Alaska, United States (Extinct, but retains recognition)

Language families and unclassified languages
Further information: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas

Notes:

  • Extinct languages or families are indicated by: †.
  • The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages).
  • For convenience, the following list of language families is divided into three sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, and South America) but are not equivalent. This division cannot fully delineate indigenous culture areas.

Northern America
Pre-contact: distribution of North American language families, including northern Mexico
Bilingual stop sign in English and the Cherokee syllabary, Tahlequah, Oklahoma

There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of Navajo), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly Cree and Ojibwe). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-) family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain.

North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California. This area has 18 language families comprising 74 languages (compared to four families in Europe: Indo-European, Uralic, Turkic, and Afroasiatic and one isolate, Basque).[80]

Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeastern Woodlands; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record. This diversity has influenced the development of linguistic theories and practice in the US.

Due to the diversity of languages in North America, it is difficult to make generalizations for the region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. three to five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for their complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely).[81] The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afroasiatic languages and the languages of the Caucasus). Ejective consonants are also common in western North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and the Mayan family).

Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo–Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of the Tanoan languages, the lexical affixes of the Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan languages, and the unusual verb structure of Na-Dené.

The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999).

See also: List of unclassified languages of North America
  1. Adai †
  2. Algic (30)
  3. Alsea (2) †
  4. Atakapa †
  5. Beothuk †
  6. Caddoan (5)
  7. Cayuse †
  8. Chimakuan (2) †
  9. Chimariko †
  10. Chinookan (3) †
  11. Chitimacha †
  12. Chumashan (6) †
  13. Coahuilteco †
  14. Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) †
  15. Coosan (2) †
  16. Cotoname †
  17. Eskimo–Aleut (7)
  18. Esselen †
  19. Haida
  20. Iroquoian (11)
  21. Kalapuyan (3) †
  22. Karankawa †
  23. Karuk
  24. Keresan (2)
  25. Kutenai
  26. Maiduan (4)
  27. Muskogean (9)
  28. Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (39)
  29. Natchez †
  30. Palaihnihan (2)
  31. Plateau Penutian (4) (also known as Shahapwailutan)
  32. Pomoan (7)
  33. Salinan †
  34. Salishan (23)
  35. Shastan (4) †
  36. Siouan (19)
  37. Siuslaw †
  38. Solano †
  39. Takelma †
  40. Tanoan (7)
  41. Timucua †
  42. Tonkawa †
  43. Tsimshianic (2)
  44. Tunica †
  45. Utian (15) (also known as Miwok–Costanoan)
  46. Uto-Aztecan (33)
  47. Wakashan (7)
  48. Wappo †
  49. Washo
  50. Wintuan (4)
  51. Yana †
  52. Yokutsan (3)
  53. Yuchi
  54. Yuki †
  55. Yuman–Cochimí (11)
  56. Zuni

Central America and Mexico
The indigenous languages of Mexico that have more than 100,000 speakers
The Mayan languages
The Chibchan languages

In Central America the Mayan languages are among those used today. Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, Belize and Honduras. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognizes eight more. The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 4,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method.

See also: Mesoamerican languages
  1. Alagüilac (Guatemala) †
  2. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  3. Coahuilteco †
  4. Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) †
  5. Cotoname †
  6. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) †
  7. Epi-Olmec (Mexico: language of undeciphered inscriptions) †
  8. Guaicurian (8) †
  9. Huave
  10. Jicaquean (2)
  11. Lencan (2) †
  12. Maratino (northeastern Mexico) †
  13. Mayan (31)
  14. Misumalpan (5)
  15. Mixe–Zoquean (19)
  16. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) †
  17. Oto-Manguean (27)
  18. Pericú †
  19. Purépecha
  20. Quinigua (northeast Mexico) †
  21. Seri
  22. Solano †
  23. Tequistlatecan (3)
  24. Totonacan (2)
  25. Uto-Aztecan (United States & Mexico) (33)
  26. Xincan (5) †
  27. Yuman (United States & Mexico) (11)

South America and the Caribbean
Main article: Indigenous languages of South America
Some of the greater families of South America: dark spots are language isolates or quasi-isolate, grey spots unclassified languages or languages with doubtful classification. (Note that Quechua, the family with most speakers, is not displayed.)
A Urarina shaman, 1988

Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:

Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.

It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that area – much smaller than SA, to be sure – is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size.

As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.

The list of language families, isolates, and unclassified languages below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

See also: List of unclassified languages of South America
  1. Aguano †
  2. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)
  3. Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí) †
  4. Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke)
  5. Andoquero †
  6. Arauan (9)
  7. Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (64) (also known as Maipurean)
  8. Arutani
  9. Aymaran (3)
  10. Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã) †
  11. Barbacoan (8)
  12. Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara) †
  13. Bororoan
  14. Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré)
  15. Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)
  16. Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche)
  17. Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi)
  18. Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana)
  19. Carabayo
  20. Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib)
  21. Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan) †
  22. Cayubaba (Bolivia)
  23. Chapacuran (9) (also known as Chapacura-Wanham, Txapakúran)
  24. Charruan (also known as Charrúan) †
  25. Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
  26. Chimuan (3) †
  27. Chipaya–Uru (also known as Uru–Chipaya)
  28. Chiquitano
  29. Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan)
  30. Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian)
  31. Chono †
  32. Coeruna (Brazil) †
  33. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
  34. Cueva †
  35. Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi) †
  36. Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) †
  37. Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame) †
  38. Fulnió
  39. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) †
  40. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) †
  41. Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)
  42. Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan)
  43. Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo) †
  44. Guató
  45. Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri)
  46. Hibito–Cholon †
  47. Himarimã
  48. Hodï (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hoti, Waruwaru)
  49. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  50. Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)
  51. Huarpe (also known as Warpe) †
  52. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  53. Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto)
  54. Jabutian
  55. Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)
  56. Jeikó †
  57. Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) †
  58. Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro)
  59. Jukude (Maku of Auari)
  60. Kaimbe
  61. Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
  62. Kamakanan †
  63. Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)
  64. Karajá
  65. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) †
  66. Katembrí †
  67. Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan)
  68. Kawésqar (Chile) (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)
  69. Kwaza (Koayá) (Brazil: Rondônia)
  70. Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)
  71. Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté)
  72. Malibú (also known as Malibu)
  73. Mapudungun (Chile, Argentina) (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)
  74. Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)
  75. Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan)
  76. Matanawí †
  77. Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían)
  78. Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) †
  79. Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén)
  80. Movima (Bolivia)
  81. Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche)
  82. Muran (4)
  83. Mutú (also known as Loco)
  84. Nadahup (5)
  85. Nambiquaran (5)
  86. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  87. Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
  88. Ofayé
  89. Old Catío–Nutabe (Colombia) †
  90. Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) †
  91. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) †
  92. Otomakoan (2) †
  93. Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe)
  94. Palta †
  95. Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
  96. Pano–Tacanan (33)
  97. Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo) †
  98. Patagon † (Peru)
  99. Peba–Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban)
  100. Pijao†
  101. Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles (Guanahatabey, Macorix, Ciguayo) † (Cuba, Hispaniola)
  102. Puelche (Chile) (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) †
  103. Puinave (also known as Makú)
  104. Puquina (Bolivia) †
  105. Purian (2) †
  106. Quechuan (46)
  107. Rikbaktsá
  108. Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan)
  109. Sechura (Atalan, Sec) †
  110. Tabancale † (Peru)
  111. Tairona (Colombia) †
  112. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) †
  113. Taruma †
  114. Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche)
  115. Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri) †
  116. Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina)
  117. Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
  118. Timotean (2) †
  119. Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, Pamiguan) †
  120. Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
  121. Tucanoan (15)
  122. Tupian (70, including Guaraní)
  123. Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) †
  124. Urarina (also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)
  125. Vilela
  126. Wakona †
  127. Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (also known as Guarao)
  128. Witotoan (6) (also known as Huitotoan, Bora–Witótoan)
  129. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (also known as Shokó) †
  130. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) †
  131. Yaghan (Chile) (also known as Yámana)
  132. Yanomaman (4)
  133. Yaruro (also known as Jaruro)
  134. Yuracare (Bolivia)
  135. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (also known as Carabayo, Jurí) †
  136. Yurumanguí (Colombia) (also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi) †
  137. Zamucoan (2)
  138. Zaparoan (5) (also known as Záparo)

Language stock proposals
Main article: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas

Hypothetical language-family proposals of American languages are often cited as uncontroversial in popular writing. However, many of these proposals have not been fully demonstrated, or even demonstrated at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan–Siouan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock").[82] Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:

  1. Algonquian–Wakashan   (also known as Almosan)
  2. Almosan–Keresiouan   (Almosan + Keresiouan)
  3. Amerind   (all languages excepting Eskimo–Aleut & Na-Dené)
  4. Algonkian–Gulf   (Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
  5. (macro-)Arawakan
  6. Arutani–Sape (Ahuaque–Kalianan)
  7. Aztec–Tanoan   (Uto-Aztecan + Tanoan)
  8. Chibchan–Paezan
  9. Chikitano–Boróroan
  10. Chimu–Chipaya
  11. Coahuiltecan   (Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
  12. Cunza–Kapixanan
  13. Dené–Caucasian
  14. Dené–Yeniseian
  15. Esmerelda–Yaruroan
  16. Ge–Pano–Carib
  17. Guamo–Chapacuran
  18. Gulf   (Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
  19. Macro-Kulyi–Cholónan
  20. Hokan   (Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
  21. Hokan–Siouan   (Hokan + Keresiouan + Subtiaba–Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Tunican + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
  22. Je–Tupi–Carib
  23. Jivaroan–Cahuapanan
  24. Kalianan
  25. Kandoshi–Omurano–Taushiro
  26. (Macro-)Katembri–Taruma
  27. Kaweskar language area
  28. Keresiouan   (Macro-Siouan + Keresan + Yuchi)
  29. Lule–Vilelan
  30. Macro-Andean
  31. Macro-Carib
  32. Macro-Chibchan
  33. Macro-Gê   (also known as Macro-Jê)
  34. Macro-Jibaro
  35. Macro-Lekoan
  36. Macro-Mayan
  37. Macro-Otomákoan
  38. Macro-Paesan
  39. Macro-Panoan
  40. Macro-Puinavean
  41. Macro-Siouan   (Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
  42. Macro-Tucanoan
  43. Macro-Tupí–Karibe
  44. Macro-Waikurúan
  45. Macro-Warpean   (Muran + Matanawi + Huarpe)
  46. Mataco–Guaicuru
  47. Mosan   (Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
  48. Mosetén–Chonan
  49. Mura–Matanawian
  50. Sapir's Na-Dené including Haida   (Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
  51. Nostratic–Amerind
  52. Paezan (Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)
  53. Paezan–Barbacoan
  54. Penutian   (many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)
    1. California Penutian   (Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
    2. Oregon Penutian   (Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
    3. Mexican Penutian   (Mixe–Zoque + Huave)
  55. Puinave–Maku
  56. Quechumaran
  57. Saparo–Yawan   (also known as Zaparo–Yaguan)
  58. Sechura–Catacao (also known as Sechura–Tallan)
  59. Takelman   (Takelma + Kalapuyan)
  60. Tequiraca–Canichana
  61. Ticuna–Yuri (Yuri–Ticunan)
  62. Totozoque   (Totonacan + Mixe–Zoque)
  63. Tunican   (Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
  64. Yok–Utian
  65. Yuki–Wappo

Good discussions of past proposals can be found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

Amerindian linguist Lyle Campbell also assigned different percentage values of probability and confidence for various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths.[83] For example, the Germanic language family would receive probability and confidence percentage values of +100% and 100%, respectively. However, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be −95%, while the confidence value might be 95%. 0% probability or confidence would mean complete uncertainty.

Language Family Probability Confidence
Algonkian–Gulf −50% 50%
Almosan (and beyond) −75% 50%
Atakapa–Chitimacha −50% 60%
Aztec–Tanoan 0% 50%
Coahuiltecan −85% 80%
Eskimo–Aleut,
Chukotan[84]		 −25% 20%
Guaicurian–Hokan 0% 10%
Gulf −25% 40%
Hokan–Subtiaba −90% 75%
Jicaque–Hokan −30% 25%
Jicaque–Subtiaba −60% 80%
Jicaque–Tequistlatecan +65% 50%
Keresan and Uto-Aztecan 0% 60%
Keresan and Zuni −40% 40%
Macro-Mayan[85] +30% 25%
Macro-Siouan[86] −20% 75%
Maya–Chipaya −80% 95%
Maya–Chipaya–Yunga −90% 95%
Mexican Penutian −40% 60%
Misumalpan–Chibchan +20% 50%
Mosan −60% 65%
Na-Dene 0% 25%
Natchez–Muskogean +40% 20%
Nostratic–Amerind −90% 75%
Otomanguean–Huave +25% 25%
Purépecha–Quechua −90% 80%
Quechua as Hokan −85% 80%
Quechumaran +50% 50%
Sahaptian–Klamath–(Molala) +75% 50%
Sahaptian–Klamath–Tsimshian +10% 10%
Takelman[87] +80% 60%
Tlapanec–Subtiaba as Otomanguean +95% 90%
Tlingit–Eyak–Athabaskan +75% 40%
Tunican 0% 20%
Wakashan and Chimakuan 0% 25%
Yukian–Gulf −85% 70%
Yukian–Siouan −60% 75%
Zuni–Penutian −80% 50%

Linguistic areas
Main article: Linguistic areas of the Americas

Unattested languages

Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.

Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

Pidgins and mixed languages

Various miscellaneous languages such as pidgins, mixed languages, trade languages, and sign languages are given below in alphabetical order.

  1. American Indian Pidgin English
  2. Algonquian-Basque pidgin (also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois; spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
  3. Broken Oghibbeway (also known as Broken Ojibwa)
  4. Broken Slavey
  5. Bungee (also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or the Red River Dialect)
  6. Callahuaya (also known as Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya Jargon)
  7. Carib Pidgin (also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
  8. Carib Pidgin–Arawak Mixed Language
  9. Catalangu
  10. Chinook Jargon
  11. Delaware Jargon (also known as Pidgin Delaware)
  12. Eskimo Trade Jargon (also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
  13. Greenlandic Pidgin (West Greenlandic Pidgin)
  14. Guajiro-Spanish
  15. Güegüence-Nicarao
  16. Haida Jargon
  17. Inuktitut-English Pidgin (Quebec)
  18. Jargonized Powhatan
  19. Keresan Sign Language
  20. Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
  21. Lingua Franca Apalachee
  22. Lingua Franca Creek
  23. Lingua Geral Amazônica (also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
  24. Lingua Geral do Sul (also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
  25. Loucheux Jargon (also known as Jargon Loucheux)
  26. Media Lengua
  27. Mednyj Aleut (also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
  28. Michif (also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
  29. Mobilian Jargon (also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)
  30. Montagnais Pidgin Basque (also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
  31. Nootka Jargon (spoken during the 18th-19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
  32. Ocaneechi (also known as Occaneechee; spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
  33. Pidgin Massachusett
  34. Plains Indian Sign Language

Writing systems

While most indigenous languages have adopted the Latin script as the written form of their languages, a few languages have their own unique writing systems after encountering the Latin script (often through missionaries) that are still in use. All pre-Columbian indigenous writing systems are no longer used.

Indigenous Writing Systems of the Americas
Writing System Type Language(s) Region(s) Date in usage Status Inventor
Quipu N/A (string) Aymara, Quechua, Puquina Andean civilizations (Western South America) 3rd millennium BCE – 17th century Extinct
Olmec Hieroglyphs Logogram Mixe–Zoque languages Isthmus of Tehuantepec 1500 BCE – 400 BCE Extinct
Zapotec writing unknown Zapotec languages Oaxaca 500 BCE – 700 CE Extinct
Epi-Olmec/Isthmian Script Logogram Zoque languages Isthmus of Tehuantepec 500 BCE – 500 CE Extinct
Abaj Takalik and Kaminaljuyú scripts unknown unknown Mixe–Zoquean language Southern Guatemala Extinct
Maya Script Logogram Mayan languages Maya civilization: Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, Guatemala, & Belize 3rd century BCE – 16th century CE Extinct
Mixtec Script Logogram Mixtecan languages Oaxaca, Puebla, Guerrero 13th century – 16th century CE Extinct
Aztec Script Semasiogram Nahuatl Central Mexico 14th century – 16th century CE Extinct
Komqwejwi'kasikl (Miꞌkmaw Hieroglyphs) Logogram Mi'kmaq Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, & New Brunswick 17th–19th century Extinct
Cherokee Syllabary Syllabary Cherokee Cherokee Nation, United States 1820s–present Active Sequoyah ᏍᏏᏉᏯ
Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Abugida Algonquian languages (Cree, Naskapi, Ojibwe/Chippewa, & Blackfoot (Siksika))

Eskimo–Aleut languages (Inuktitut & Inuinnaqtun)

Athabaskan languages (Dane-zaa, Slavey, Chipewyan (Denesuline)/Sayisi, Carrier (Dakelh), & Sekani)

 Canada 1840s–present Active James Evans ᒉᐃᒻᔅ ᐁᕙᓐᔅ
Yugtun Script Syllabary Central Alaskan Yup'ik Alaska 1900–present Endangered Uyaquq
Afaka Syllabary Syllabary Ndyuka Suriname, French Guiana 1910–present Endangered Afáka Atumisi

See also

Notes
  1. Greenberg, Joseph (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1315-3.
  2. Campbell, Lyle (2000). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534983-2., page 253
  3. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com)
  4. "Census Shows Native Languages Count". Language Magazine. Retrieved 2020-08-16.
  5. Premm, Hanns J.; Riese, Berthold (1983). Coulmas, Florian; Ehlich, Konrad (eds.). Autochthonous American writing systems: The Aztec and Mayan examples. Writing in Focus. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs. 24. Berlin: Mouton Publishers. pp. 167–169. ISBN 978-90-279-3359-1. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
  6. Wichmann, Soren (2006). "Mayan Historical Linguistics and Epigraphy: A New Synthesis". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 279–294. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123257.
  7. Shapiro, Judith (1987). "From Tupã to the Land without Evil: The Christianization of Tupi-Guarani Cosmology". American Ethnologist. 1 (14): 126–139. doi:10.1525/ae.1987.14.1.02a00080.
  8. "Lov om Grønlands Selvstyre Kapitel 7 Sprog" [Law of Greenland Self-Determination Chapter 7 Language] (PDF). www.stm.dk. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  9. Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 3 The Origin of American Indian Languages, pp. 90–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  10. Blench, Roger. (2008) Accounting for the Diversity of Amerindian Languages: Modelling the Settlement of the New World. Paper presented at the Archaeology Research Seminar, RSPAS, Canberra, Australia.
  11. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  12. Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  13. Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
  14. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  15. "Aymara, Central". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-07-22.
  16. "Aymara, Southern". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-07-22.
  17. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  18. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  19. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  20. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  21. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  22. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  23. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  24. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  25. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  26. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  27. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  28. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  29. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  30. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  31. "Garifuna (Black Carib)". Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  32. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  33. Ryan, Camille (August 2013). "Language Use" (PDF). Census.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2016. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
  34. Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  35. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  36. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  37. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  38. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  39. "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11.
  40. "Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census - Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data". Canada Statistics. 2017-08-02. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
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  80. If the Caucasus is considered to be a part of Europe, Northwest Caucasian and Northeast Caucasian would be included resulting in five language families within Europe. Other language families, such as the Turkic, Mongolic, Afroasiatic families have entered Europe in later migrations.
  81. Nater 1984, pg. 5
  82. Ruhlen, Merritt. (1991 [1987]). A Guide to the World's Languages Volume 1: Classification, p.216. Edward Arnold. Paperback: ISBN 0-340-56186-6.
  83. Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 8 Distant Genetic Relationships, pp. 260–329. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  84. American-Arctic–Paleosiberian Phylum, Luoravetlan – and beyond
  85. Macro-Mayan includes Mayan, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoquean, and sometimes Huave.
  86. Siouan–Iroquoian–Caddoan–[Yuchi]
  87. Alternatively Takelma–Kalapuyan

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South America
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  • Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project
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