Haplogroup C (mtDNA)

Haplogroup C
Possible time of origin	36,473.3 (SD 7392.0) years[1]
Coalescence age	27,370 (95% CI 19,550 <-> 35,440) ybp[2]; 23,912.2 (SD 4780.8) years[1]; 21,700 (95% CI 19,200 <-> 24,400) ybp[3]
Possible place of origin	Central Asia
Ancestor	CZ
Descendants	C1, C4, C5, C7
Defining mutations	489 10400 14783 15043[4]

In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup C is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.

Origin

Haplogroup C is believed to have arisen somewhere between the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal some 24,000 years before present. It is a descendant of the haplogroup M. Haplogroup C shares six mutations downstream of the MRCA of haplogroup M with haplogroup Z and five mutations downstream of the MRCA of haplogroup M with other members of haplogroup M8. This macro-haplogroup is known as haplogroup M8'CZ or simply as haplogroup M8.

Distribution

Frequency distribution of mtDNA haplogroup C in Eurasia

Approximate geographical distribution of the C1 sub-clades.

Haplogroup C is found in Northeast Asia[5] (including Siberia) and the Americas. In Eurasia, Haplogroup C is especially frequent among populations of arctic Siberia, such as Nganasans, Dolgans, Yakuts, Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs, and Koryaks.[6][7][8] Haplogroup C is one of five mtDNA haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas,[5] the others being A, B, D, and X. The subclades C1b, C1c, C1d, and C4c are found in the first people of the Americas. C1a is found only in Asia.

In 2010, Icelandic researchers discovered C1e lineage in their home country, estimating an introduction date of year 1700 AD or earlier, indicating a possible introduction during the Viking expeditions to the Americas. A Native American origin for this C1e lineage is likely, but the researchers note that a European or Asian one cannot be ruled out.[9][10][11]

In 2014, a study discovered a new mtDNA subclade C1f from the remains of 3 people found in north-western Russia and dated to 7,500 years ago. It has not been detected in modern populations. The study proposed the hypothesis that the sister C1e and C1f subclades had split early from the most recent common ancestor of the C1 clade and had evolved independently. Subclade C1e had a northern European origin. Iceland was settled by the Vikings 1,130 years ago and they had raided heavily into western Russia, where the sister subclade C1f is now known to have resided. They proposed that both subclades were brought to Iceland through the Vikings, however C1e went extinct on mainland northern Europe due to population turnover and its small representation, and subclade C1f went extinct completely.[12]

In 2015, a study conducted in the Aconcagua mummy identified its mtDNA lineage belongs to the subclade C1bi, which contains 10 distinct mutations from C1b.[13]

Table of Frequencies by ethnic group

Population	Frequency	Count	Source	Subtypes
Evenks (Stony Tunguska)	0.769	39	Duggan 2013	C4a2=7, C4a1c=6, C4b1=5, C5d1=4, C4b=3, C4b3=3, C4a1c1a=1, C5b1b=1
Evenk	0.718	71	Starikovskaya 2005	C(xC1, C5)=41, C5=10
Yukaghir	0.670	100	Volodko 2008	C(xC1, C5)=54, C5=13
Evenk (East)	0.644	45	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=17, C5=12
Tofalar	0.621	58	Derenko 2003	C(xC1, C5)=31, C5=5
Evens (Sebjan)	0.556	18	Duggan 2013	C4b=6, C4a1c=3, C5b1b=1
Yukaghirs	0.550	20	Duggan 2013	C4a1c=4, C4b3a=2, C4b7=2, C4a2=1, C5a2=1, C5d1=1
Yukaghirs (Yakutia)	0.545	22	Fedorova 2013	C4b3a=5, C5d1=3, C4a1c=1, C4a2=1, C4b1=1, C5a2a=1
Evens (Tompo)	0.519	27	Duggan 2013	C4a1c=6, C4a2=3, C4b=2, C4b1=2, C5d1=1
Nganasans	0.513	39	Volodko 2008	C(xC1, C5)=12, C5=8
Tozhu Tuvans	0.479	48	Derenko 2003	C(xC1, C5)=16, C5=7
Evenks (Yakutia)	0.472	125	Fedorova 2013	C4b1=13, C4a1c=11, C4b9=9, C4a2=8, C4b=5, C5b1b=4, C5a2=3, C5d1=2, C4a1=1, C4a1d=1, C4b3a=1, C5a1=1
Tuvans	0.472	231	Derenko 2000	C(xC1, C5)=88, C5=21
Yakut	0.469	254	Derenko 1997	C(xC1, C5)=95, C5=24
Evens (Berezovka)	0.467	15	Duggan 2013	C4b3a=4, C4b=1, C4b1=1, C4b7=1
Evenk (West)	0.466	73	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=29, C5=5
Evenks (Taimyr)	0.458	24	Duggan 2013	C4a1c=5, C4b1=4, C4a1c1a=1, C4a2=1
Yakut (Central)	0.457	164	Fedorova 2013	C4a1c=16, C4a2=14, C5b1b=13, C4b1=8, C4a1d=7, C4b=4, C4b1a=3, C5a1=3, C4a1=2, C5b1a=2, C4b3a=1, C5a2=1, C7a1c=1
Evens (Yakutia)	0.457	105	Fedorova 2013	C4a1c=15, C5d1=11, C4a2=4, C4b3a=3, C4b1=2, C4b7=2, C4b9=2, C4b=2, C5a1=2, C7a1c=2, C4b1a=1, C4b2=1, C5a2a=1
Evenks (Nyukzha)	0.413	46	Fedorova 2013	C4a2=10, C4b1=3, C4a1c=2, C4a1d=1, C4b1a=1, C5a2=1, C7a1c=1
Yakut (Northern)	0.405	148	Fedorova 2013	C4a1c=17, C4b1=16, C4a2=11, C5b1a=4, C5b1b=4, C4b9=3, C4b=2, C5a1=2, C5d1=1
Koryaks	0.400	15	Duggan 2013	C4b=3, C5a2=3
Dolgans	0.390	154	Fedorova 2013	C4a1c=33, C4b1=9, C5b1b=5, C4b3a=3, C4a2=2, C4b1a=2, C5b1a=2, C4b8=1, C4b=1, C5d1=1, C7a1c=1
Even	0.377	191	Derenko 1997	C(xC1, C5)=50, C5=22
Koryak	0.368	182	Derenko 1997	C(xC1, C5)=39, C5=28
Yakut (Vilyuy)	0.360	111	Fedorova 2013	C4a1c=14, C4a2=10, C4b=5, C4b1=4, C4b1a=2, C5a2=2, C5b1b=2, C4a1=1
Evens (Kamchatka)	0.333	39	Duggan 2013	C4b1=6, C4b3a=3, C4a1c=2, C5a2=1, C5d1=1
Altai-Kizhi	0.322	90	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=21, C5=8
Chuvantsi	0.313	32	Volodko 2008	C(xC1, C5)=10
Oroqen	0.295	44	Kong 2003	C(xC1, C5)=9, C5=4
Teleut	0.283	53	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=11, C5=4
Evens (Sakkyryyr)	0.261	23	Duggan 2013	C4a1c=2, C4b=2, C4a1d=1, C4b1=1
Udegey	0.226	31	Duggan 2013	C4b1=6, C4a1d=1
Mongolian (Ulaanbaatar)	0.213	47	Jin 2009	C=10
Buryat	0.212	419	Derenko 2000	C(xC1, C5)=66, C1=3, C5=20
Khakassian	0.208	110	Derenko 2003	C(xC1, C5)=28, C5=2
Barghut	0.201	149	Derenko 2012	C4a1a1=6, C4a1a2=3, C4a1b2=3, C4a2a1=2, C4b1a=2, C4b1=2, C4=2, C5b=2, C4a1a=1, C4a1a1a2=1, C4a1a2a2=1, C4a2a2=1, C5a1=1, C5a2=1, C5b1a=1, C7=1
Tubalar	0.194	72	Starikovskaya 2005	C(xC1, C5)=12, C5=2
Altaian	0.191	110	Derenko 2003	C(xC1, C5)=21
Evenks (Iengra)	0.190	21	Duggan 2013	C4a2=2, C4b1=1, C5a2=1
Udege	0.174	46	Starikovskaya 2005	C(xC1, C5)=8
Mongolian (Ulaanbaatar)	0.170	47	Derenko 2007	C4=4, C*(xC1,C4,C5)=3, C5=1
Telenghit	0.169	71	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=10, C5=2
Mongolian	0.153	150	Kolman 1998	C(xC1, C5)=18, C1=2, C5=3
Negidal	0.152	33	Starikovskaya 2005	C(xC1, C5)=3, C5=2
Kyrgyz (Kyzylsu)	0.145	138	Guo 2020	C=20
Kyrgyz	0.140	200	Comas 1998	C(xC1, C5)=18, C1=1, C5=9
Ulch	0.138	87	Starikovskaya 2005	C(xC1, C5)=6, C1=1, C5=5
Turkmen	0.135	178	Malyarchuk 2002	C(xC1, C5)=14, C5=10
Chukchi	0.132	417	Starikovskaya 1998	C(xC1, C5)=27 C5=28
Kazakh (Xinjiang)	0.132	53	Yao 2004	C(xC1, C5)=5 C5=2
Itelmen	0.130	46	Shchurr 1999	C5=6
Shor	0.122	82	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=9 C5=1
Orok	0.115	61	Bermisheva 2005	C1=7
Kyrgyz (Taxkorgan)	0.103	68	Peng 2017	C4=6, C5=1
Thai	0.100	40	Jin 2009	C=4
Nanai	0.094	85	Tamm 2007	C(xC1, C5)=5, C1=1, C5=2
Kazakh	0.086	511	Comas 1998	C(xC1, C5)=32, C1=4, C5=8
Mongolian (Inner Mongolia)	0.083	97	Kong 2004	C(xC1, C5)=5
Altaian (Kazakhstan)	0.082	98	Derenko 2009	C(xC1, C5)=8
Kyrgyz (Artux)	0.074	54	Peng 2017	C4=4
Tajik	0.073	82	Derenko 2007	C(xC1, C5)=6
Sarikoli	0.070	86	Peng 2017	C4a1a+A14878G=2, C4a1=2, C4b1=1, C4+T152C!+T4742C+T8602C=1
Daur	0.066	45	Kong 2003	C(xC1, C5)=2, C1=1
Uyghur (Xinjiang)	0.064	47	Yao 2004	C(xC1, C5)=3
Uzbek	0.061	130	Quintana-Murci 2004	C(xC1, C5)=6, C5=2
Vietnamese	0.048	42	Jin 2009	C=2
Han Chinese	0.045	1930	Horai 1996	C(xC1, C5)=72, C5=15
Thai	0.034	552	Matspalu 2004	C(xC1, C5)=19
Korean (mostly Ulsan)	0.030	1094	Jeon 2020	C=33
Manchu	0.025	40	Jin 2009	C=1
Korean	0.024	694	Lee 2006	C=17
Korean (China)	0.020	51	Jin 2009	C=1
Korean (Korea)	0.016	185	Jin 2009	C=3
Korean	0.015	537	Tanaka 2004	C5=4, C(xC1,C5)=4
Korean	0.010	103	Derenko 2007	C(xC1,C4,C5)=1
Eskimo	0.008	254	Starikovskaya 1998	C(xC1, C5)=2
Japanese	0.005	1312	Tanaka 2004	C1=4, C5=1, C(xC1,C5)=1
Japanese (Tokyo)	0.000	118	Zheng 2011	-
Ainu	0.000	51	Horai 1996	-
Nivkh	0.000	38	Duggan 2013	-
Han (Beijing)	0.000	40	Jin 2009	-
Nivkh	0.000	56	Starikovskaya 2005	-

Subclades

Tree

This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup C subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation[4] and subsequent published research.

CZ
- C
  - C1
    - C1a
      - C1a* – Ulchi,[14] Nanai,[15] Daur[16]
      - C1a1 – Japan
      - C1a2 – Buryat,[17] Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan)[18]
    - C1b
      - C1b*
      - C1b1
        C1b1*
        
        C1b1a
        C1b1a* – Mexican American
        
        C1b1a1 – Mexican American
        
        C1b1b – Native American, Mexican American
      - C1b2
        C1b2* – Peru, Paraguay
        
        C1b2a – Peru
        
        C1b2b – Colombia
        
        C1b2c
        C1b2c* – USA, Puerto Rico, Paraguay, Spain
        
        C1b2c1 – Paraguay
      - C1b3
        C1b3* – Peru
        
        C1b3a
        C1b3a* – Peru
        
        C1b3a1 – Argentina
      - C1b4 – Ecuador, Peru, USA
      - C1b5
    - C1c
      - C1c1
      - C1c2
    - C1d – Argentina (Buenos Aires[19]), Colombia (Boyacá[19]), Mexico (Tamaulipas,[19] Guanajuato,[19] Chihuahua,[19] etc.), United States (Mexican Americans[20]), Canada (Shuswap[21])
      - C1d1
      - C1d2 – Colombia (Mestizo[19])
        C1d2a – Colombia (Mestizos[19])
    - C1e – Iceland
    - C1f – Pamiri Tajik (Gorno-Badakhshan),[22][3] India (Marathi),[3] Scotland, Italy, Mesolithic NW Russia
    - C1g – Mesolithic NW Russia (Karelia)[23]
  - C4 – Russian,[2] Myanmar
    - C4a'b'c
      - C4a – China (Han from Beijing)
        C4a1 – Iran (Azeri),[24] Bashkortostan,[25] Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan),[22] Sarikoli (Tashkurgan),[22] Wakhi (Tashkurgan),[22] Czech Republic, Denmark
        C4a1a – Uyghur, Buryat,[2] Korea,[3] Denmark, Sweden, France, Scotland, Canada
        C4a1a1 – Pole (Kashubia)[26]
        C4a1a1a – Lepcha,[27] Lachungpa[27]
        
        C-T195C! – Ireland, Scotland, England, USA, Poland, Russian,[2] Turkey, India, Mongol (Inner Mongolia)
        C4a1a2 – China
        C4a1a2a – China (Han from Ili, Han from Hunan)
        
        C4a1a3 – Sweden, Altai Kizhi,[2] Evenk (Taimyr Peninsula)[7]
        C4a1a3a – Buryat,[2] Bargut[2]
        C4a1a3a1 – Tofalar,[28][14][29] Nganasan (Vadei of Taimyr Peninsula)[6]
        
        C4a1a3b – Tubalar,[6] Bargut[2]
        
        C4a1a3c – Evenk (Taimyr Peninsula,[7] Stony Tunguska[7])
        
        C4a1a3d – Yakut[7]
        
        C4a1a4 – Buryat,[2] Kazakhstan
        C4a1a4a – Evenk (Okhotsk region),[6] Shor[2]
        
        C4a1a5 – Teleut,[2] Ladakh
        
        C4a1a6 – Buryat,[2] Bargut (Inner Mongolia)[2]
        
        C4a1b – China
        
        C4a2
        C4a2a – Yakut[7]
        C4a2a1 – Yakut,[15] Evenk (Stony Tunguska),[7] China, Korea
        C4a2a1a – Yukaghir,[6] Yakut[7]
        
        C4a2a1b – Yakut,[7] Evenk[30]
        
        C4a2b – Tibet, Korea[3]
        C4a2b1 – Wancho[27]
        
        C4a2b2 – China (Han from Beijing)
        C4a2b2a – Tibet (Sherpa)[31]
        
        C4a2c – Bargut (Inner Mongolia)[2]
        C4a2c1 – India (Jenu Kuruba)[27]
        
        C4a2c2 – Lepcha[27]
        C4a2c2a – Ladakh
      - C4b – Yukaghir,[6] Altai Kizhi,[2] Ukraine, Slovakia
        C4b1 – Yukaghir,[6] Buryat[2]
        C4b1a – Bargut (Inner Mongolia)[2]
        
        C4b1b – Evenk (Stony Tunguska),[7] Buryat[2]
        
        C4b2 – Koryak[7]
        C4b2a – Koryak,[2] Chukchi[6]
        
        C4b3 – Yakut,[7] Altai Kizhi[2]
        C4b3a – Yukaghir,[6] Even (Berezovka)[7]
        C4b3a1 – Yukaghir[6]
        
        C4b3b – Buryat,[30] Evenk (Stony Tunguska)[7]
        
        C4b5 – Khamnigan,[2] Buryat[2]
        
        C4b6 – Altai Kizhi,[2] Tubalar[6]
        
        C4b7 – Yukaghir[6]
        
        C4b8 – Yakut[7]
        C4b8a – Nganasan[6][14]
      - C4c – Ijka[32]
        C4c1 – Sioux (Carson County of South Dakota),[33] Shuswap,[21] Canada, USA, France, Spain
        C4c1a – Cherokee (Flint District of Oklahoma)[33]
        
        C4c1b – Chippewa (Trempealeau in Wisconsin),[33] Ottawa or Chippewa (Sault Saint Marie, Chippewa County, Michigan),[33] Canada
        
        C4c2 – Métis (Red River, Manitoba),[33] USA
    - C4-T152C! – England, Burusho,[16] Pamiri (Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan),[22] Sarikoli (Tashkurgan),[22] Uyghur
      - C4-T16093C – Tibet, Kyrgyzstan[18]
        C4d – Turkey, Tibet, Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province[34]), Han from Beijing
      - C4e – Teleut,[2] Shor[2]
  - C5 – India
    - C5a – Azeri
      - C5a1 – Bargut (Inner Mongolia),[2] Buryat, Khamnigan,[2] Ulchi,[14] Even (Severo-Evensk District),[2] Altai Kizhi,[2] Yakut, Uyghur, Kazakhstan, Khanty
      - C5a2
        C5a2a – Evenk (Iengra River basin),[7] Buryat,[2] Turkey
        
        C5a2b – Yukaghir,[6] Koryak,[2] Chukchi
        C5a2b1 – Koryak[15][2][7]
    - C5b – Poland[2]
      - C5b1 – Tofalar,[28] Todjin,[28] Tuvan,[28] Sojot,[28] Buryat,[2] Ladakh, Japan
        C5b1a – Altai Kizhi,[2] Evenk (Central Siberia)[2]
        C5b1a1 – Nganasan,[14] Buryat,[2] Khamnigan,[2] Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan)[22]
        
        C5b1b – Khakas[28]
        C5b1b* – Buryat,[2] Uyghur, Russia[35] (Chechen Republic[3]), Bulgaria[35] (Turk in Dobrich[3])
        
        C5b1b1 – Yakut,[2][7] Russian,[2] Evenk (Stony Tunguska[7]), Even (Sebjan[7])
    - C5-T16093C – Japan (Aichi), Han (Beijing)
      - C5c – Tubalar,[6] Teleut,[2] Afghanistan, Persian (Iran),[24] Czech Republic
        C5c-C16234T – Kurd (Iran),[24] Armenia, Turkey, Kuwait
        C5c1 – Poland,[2] Sweden, Greece
        C5c1a – Russian (Uzbekistan), Ukraine, Lithuania, Poland,[2] Slovakia, Austria, Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, Italy, USA, Canada
      - C5d – China, Vietnam (Hmong)
        C5d1 – Altai Kizhi,[2] Tuvan,[14] Evenk (Stony Tunguska),[7] Yukaghir[6][7]
        
        C5d2 – Khamnigan,[2] China[36]
  - C7 – South Korea (Seoul),[2] China,[37] Taiwan (Hakka), Thailand (Khon Mueang in Chiang Rai Province, Chiang Mai Province, and Lamphun Province[34]), Vietnam (Kinh, Tay, Jarai)
    - C7a – Han (Beijing, Yunnan, Denver, etc.),[38] Uyghur, Taiwan (Paiwan, Minnan), Lahu, Thailand (incl. Urak Lawoi, Lao Isan in Chaiyaphum Province, Khon Mueang in Lamphun Province, Khon Mueang in Lampang Province, Kaleun in Nakhon Phanom Province, Black Tai in Loei Province, Phuan in Suphan Buri Province[34]), Vietnam (Hani, Yao, Gelao)
      - C7a1 – China, Taiwan (Makatao), USA (Han Chinese in Denver), Korea
        C7a1a – Thailand (Mon in Lopburi Province[34])
        C7a1a1 – Wancho[27]
        
        C7a1a2 – Dirang Monpa[27]
        
        C7a1b – Northern Thailand (Tai Lue[39]), Vietnam (Nung)
        
        C7a1c – Uyghurs, Chinese (Fengcheng,[40] Shandong,[3] Fujian,[3] Taixing, etc.), Taiwan, Korea,[3] Vietnam
        C7a1c1 – Evenk (Central Siberia,[2] Nyukzha River basin,[7] Okhotsk region[6]), Uyghur
        
        C7a1d – Wancho[27]
        
        C7a1f – Thailand (Karen)
        C7a1f1 – Thailand (Karen, Shan, Khon Mueang from Mae Hong Son Province, Mon from Kanchanaburi Province)
        C7a1f1a – Thailand (S'gaw Karen, Khon Mueang in Chiang Rai Province[34])
      - C7a2 – China,[41] Dai, Laos (Lao in Luang Prabang[34]), Thailand (Khon Mueang in Chiang Mai Province, Khon Mueang in Chiang Rai Province, Lao Isan in Roi Et Province, Phutai in Sakon Nakhon Province, Mon in Nakhon Ratchasima Province[34]), Myanmar (Yangon)
        C7a2a – China (Shantou, etc.),[42] Taiwan (Hakka, Makatao, etc.)
      - C7a3
      - C7a4
      - C7a5
      - C7a6
    - C7-A16051G – Bargut (Inner Mongolia)[2]
      - C7b – Gallong,[27] Naxi, Ukraine, Moldova, Austria
    - C7c – Korea
    - C7d – Taiwan (Hakka), Vietnam (Vietnamese), Thailand (Khon Mueang in Mae Hong Son Province, Lao Isan in Roi Et Province), Cambodia (Kampong Cham)
    - C7e – Cambodia (Takéo), Thailand (Khmer in Surin Province)

Popular culture

In his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Chochmingwu.

References

Behar et al., 2012b
Derenko,M., Malyarchuk,B., Grzybowski,T., Denisova,G., Rogalla,U., Perkova,M., Dambueva,I., and Zakharov,I., "Origin and post-glacial dispersal of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups C and D in northern Asia." PLoS ONE 5 (12), E15214 (2010).
YFull MTree 1.02.7045 (as of January 11, 2021)
van Oven, Mannis; Manfred Kayser (13 Oct 2008). "Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation". Human Mutation. 30 (2): E386–E394. doi:10.1002/humu.20921. PMID 18853457. S2CID 27566749.
Haplogroup C.
Volodko, Natalia V.; Starikovskaya, Elena B.; Mazunin, Ilya O.; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity in Arctic Siberians, with Particular Reference to the Evolutionary History of Beringia and Pleistocenic Peopling of the Americas". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (5): 1084–1100. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.03.019. PMC 2427195. PMID 18452887.
Duggan, AT; Whitten, M; Wiebe, V; Crawford, M; Butthof, A; et al. (2013). "Investigating the Prehistory of Tungusic Peoples of Siberia and the Amur-Ussuri Region with Complete mtDNA Genome Sequences and Y-chromosomal Markers". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e83570. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...883570D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083570. PMC 3861515. PMID 24349531.
Fedorova, Sardana A; Reidla, Maere; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (2013). "Autosomal and uniparental portraits of the native populations of Sakha (Yakutia): implications for the peopling of Northeast Eurasia". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2013 (13): 127. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-127. PMC 3695835. PMID 23782551.
Sunna Ebenesersdóttir, Sigríður (2010). "A new subclade of mtDNA haplogroup C1 found in icelanders: Evidence of pre-columbian contact?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 144 (1): 92–99. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21419. PMID 21069749.
Vikings brought Amerindian to Iceland 1,000 years ago: study, November 17, 2010
First Americans 'reached Europe five centuries before Columbus voyages', 16 Nov 2010
Der Sarkissian, Clio; Brotherton, Paul; Balanovsky, Oleg; Templeton, Jennifer E. L.; Llamas, Bastien; Soubrier, Julien; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Khartanovich, Valery; Cooper, Alan; Haak, Wolfgang (2014). "Mitochondrial Genome Sequencing in Mesolithic North East Europe Unearths a New Sub-Clade within the Broadly Distributed Human Haplogroup C1". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e87612. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987612D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087612. PMC 3913659. PMID 24503968.
Gómez-Carballa & Catelli 2015.
Starikovskaya, E.B., Sukernik, R.I., Derbeneva, O.A., Volodko, N.V., Ruiz-Pesini, E., Torroni, A., Brown, M.D., Lott, M.T., Hosseini, S.H., Huoponen, K. and Wallace, D.C., "Mitochondrial DNA diversity in indigenous populations of the southern extent of Siberia, and the origins of Native American haplogroups." Annals of Human Genetics 69 (PT 1), 67-89 (2005).
Ingman, M.; Gyllensten, U. (2007). "Rate variation between mitochondrial domains and adaptive evolution in humans". Human Molecular Genetics. 16 (19): 2281–2287. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddm180. PMID 17617636.
Sebastian Lippold; et al. (2014). "Human paternal and maternal demographic histories: insights from high-resolution Y chromosome and mtDNA sequences". bioRxiv 10.1101/001792.
Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; et al. (2007). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in Northern Asian Populations". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 81 (5): 1025–1041. doi:10.1086/522933. PMC 2265662. PMID 17924343.
Marchi, Nina; Hegay, Tatyana; Mennecier, Philippe; Georges, Myriam; Laurent, Romain; Whitten, Mark; Endicott, Philipp; Aldashev, Almaz; Dorzhu, Choduraa; Nasyrova, Firuza; Chichlo, Boris; Ségurel, Laure; Heyer, Evelyne (2017). "Sex-specific genetic diversity is shaped by cultural factors in Inner Asian human populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (4): 627–640. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23151. PMID 28158897.
U.A. Perego, N. Angerhofer, M. Pala, et al., "The initial peopling of the Americas: a growing number of founding mitochondrial genomes from Beringia." Genome Res. 20 (9), 1174-1179 (2010).
S. Kumar, C. Bellis, M. Zlojutro, et al., "Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins." BMC Evol. Biol. 11 (1), 293 (2011).
R.S. Malhi, J.S. Cybulski, R.Y. Tito, et al., "Brief communication: Mitochondrial haplotype C4c confirmed as a founding genome in the Americas." Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 141 (3), 494-497 (2010).
Peng, Min-Sheng; Xu, Weifang; Song, Jiao-Jiao; Chen, Xing; Sulaiman, Xierzhatijiang; Cai, Liuhong; Liu, He-Qun; Wu, Shi-Fang; Gao, Yun; Abdulloevich, Najmudinov Tojiddin; Afanasevna, Manilova Elena; Ibrohimovich, Khudoidodov Behruz; Chen, Xi; Yang, Wei-Kang; Wu, Miao; Li, Gui-Mei; Yang, Xing-Yan; Rakha, Allah; Yao, Yong-Gang; Upur, Halmurat; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2018). "Mitochondrial genomes uncover the maternal history of the Pamir populations". European Journal of Human Genetics. 26 (1): 124–136. doi:10.1038/s41431-017-0028-8. PMC 5839027. PMID 29187735.
Fu, Qiaomei; Posth, Cosimo; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Petr, Martin; Mallick, Swapan; Fernandes, Daniel; Furtwängler, Anja; Haak, Wolfgang; Meyer, Matthias; Mittnik, Alissa; Nickel, Birgit (June 2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature. 534 (7606): 200–205. Bibcode:2016Natur.534..200F. doi:10.1038/nature17993. hdl:10211.3/198594. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 4943878. PMID 27135931.
Derenko, M; Malyarchuk, B; Bahmanimehr, A; Denisova, G; Perkova, M; et al. (2013). "Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e80673. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880673D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080673. PMC 3828245. PMID 24244704.
Mielnik-Sikorska, M; Daca, P; Malyarchuk, B; Derenko, M; Skonieczna, K; et al. (2013). "The History of Slavs Inferred from Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequences". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e54360. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...854360M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054360. PMC 3544712. PMID 23342138.
Chandrasekar, A; Kumar, S; Sreenath, J; Sarkar, BN; Urade, BP; et al. (2009). "Updating Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup M in India: Dispersal of Modern Human in South Asian Corridor". PLOS ONE. 4 (10): e7447. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7447C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007447. PMC 2757894. PMID 19823670.
M. V. Derenko, T. Grzybowski, B. A. Malyarchuk, et al., "Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in South Siberia." Annals of Human Genetics (2003) 67,391–411.
Dryomov, S.V., Starikovskaya, E.B., Nazhmidenova, A.M. et al. Genetic legacy of cultures indigenous to the Northeast Asian coast in mitochondrial genomes of nearly extinct maritime tribes. BMC Evol Biol 20, 83 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-020-01652-1
Ingman, M.; Kaessmann, H.; Paabo, S.; Gyllensten, U. (2000). "Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans". Nature. 408 (6813): 708–713. Bibcode:2000Natur.408..708I. doi:10.1038/35047064. PMID 11130070. S2CID 52850476.
Tamm, E; Kivisild, T; Reidla, M; Metspalu, M; Smith, DG; Mulligan, CJ; Bravi, CM; Rickards, O; Martinez-Labarga, C; Khusnutdinova, EK; Fedorova, SA; Golubenko, MV; Stepanov, VA; Gubina, MA; Zhadanov, SI; Ossipova, LP; Damba, L; Voevoda, MI; Dipierri, JE; Villems, R; Malhi, RS (2007). "Beringian standstill and spread of Native American founders". PLOS ONE. 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. PMC 1952074. PMID 17786201.
Kutanan, Wibhu; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Srikummool, Metawee; Kangwanpong, Daoroong; Ghirotto, Silvia; Brunelli, Andrea; Stoneking, Mark (2016). "Complete mitochondrial genomes of Thai and Lao populations indicate an ancient origin of Austroasiatic groups and demic diffusion in the spread of Tai–Kadai languages". Hum Genet. 136 (1): 85–98. doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1742-y. PMC 5214972. PMID 27837350.
Jiang,C., Cui,J., Liu,F., Gao,L., Luo,Y., Li,P., Guan,L. and Gao,Y., "Mitochondrial DNA 10609T Promotes Hypoxia-Induced Increase of Intracellular ROS and Is a Risk Factor of High Altitude Polycythemia." PLoS ONE 9 (1), E87775 (2014).
Fuyun Ji, Mark S. Sharpley, Olga Derbeneva, et al., "Mitochondrial DNA variant associated with Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and high-altitude Tibetans." PNAS May 8, 2012 109 (19) 7391-7396; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1202484109.
Kutanan, Wibhu; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Changmai, Piya; et al. (2018). "Contrasting maternal and paternal genetic variation of hunter-gatherer groups in Thailand". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 1536. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.1536K. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20020-0. PMC 5784115. PMID 29367746.
Kong, Q.P.; Yao, Y.G.; Sun, C.; Bandelt, H.J.; Zhu, C.L.; Zhang, Y.P. (2003). "Phylogeny of east Asian mitochondrial DNA lineages inferred from complete sequences". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73 (3): 671–676. doi:10.1086/377718. PMC 1180693. PMID 12870132.
Zhang,A.M., Bandelt,H.J., Jia,X., Zhang,W., Li,S., Yu,D., Wang,D., Zhuang,X.Y., Zhang,Q., and Yao,Y.G., "Is Mitochondrial tRNA Variant m.593T>C a Synergistically Pathogenic Mutation in Chinese LHON Families with m.11778G>A?" PLoS ONE 6 (10), E26511 (2011).
Wang, C.Y.; Wang, H.W.; Yao, Y.G.; Kong, Q.P.; Zhang, Y.P. (2007). "Somatic mutations of mitochondrial genome in early stage breast cancer". Int. J. Cancer. 121 (6): 1253–1256. doi:10.1002/ijc.22822. PMID 17514652. S2CID 36734968.

Bibliography

Gómez-Carballa, Alberto; Catelli, Laura (November 12, 2015). "The complete mitogenome of a 500-year-old Inca child mummy". Scientific Reports. 5: 16462. Bibcode:2015NatSR...516462G. doi:10.1038/srep16462. PMC 4642457. PMID 26561991.

External links

General
- Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site
- Mannis van Oven's Phylotree
Haplogroup C
- Spread of Haplogroup C, from National Geographic

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[Behar2012-1] Behar et al., 2012b

[Derenko2010-2] Derenko,M., Malyarchuk,B., Grzybowski,T., Denisova,G., Rogalla,U., Perkova,M., Dambueva,I., and Zakharov,I., "Origin and post-glacial dispersal of mitochondrial DNA haplogroups C and D in northern Asia." PLoS ONE 5 (12), E15214 (2010).

[YFull-3] YFull MTree 1.02.7045 (as of January 11, 2021)

[vanOven-4] van Oven, Mannis; Manfred Kayser (13 Oct 2008). "Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation". Human Mutation. 30 (2): E386–E394. doi:10.1002/humu.20921. PMID 18853457. S2CID 27566749.

[tree-5] Haplogroup C.

[Volodko2008-6] Volodko, Natalia V.; Starikovskaya, Elena B.; Mazunin, Ilya O.; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity in Arctic Siberians, with Particular Reference to the Evolutionary History of Beringia and Pleistocenic Peopling of the Americas". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (5): 1084–1100. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.03.019. PMC 2427195. PMID 18452887.

[Duggan2013-7] Duggan, AT; Whitten, M; Wiebe, V; Crawford, M; Butthof, A; et al. (2013). "Investigating the Prehistory of Tungusic Peoples of Siberia and the Amur-Ussuri Region with Complete mtDNA Genome Sequences and Y-chromosomal Markers". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e83570. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...883570D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083570. PMC 3861515. PMID 24349531.

[Fedorova2013-8] Fedorova, Sardana A; Reidla, Maere; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (2013). "Autosomal and uniparental portraits of the native populations of Sakha (Yakutia): implications for the peopling of Northeast Eurasia". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2013 (13): 127. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-127. PMC 3695835. PMID 23782551.

[C1e-9] Sunna Ebenesersdóttir, Sigríður (2010). "A new subclade of mtDNA haplogroup C1 found in icelanders: Evidence of pre-columbian contact?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 144 (1): 92–99. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21419. PMID 21069749.

[10] Vikings brought Amerindian to Iceland 1,000 years ago: study, November 17, 2010

[11] First Americans 'reached Europe five centuries before Columbus voyages', 16 Nov 2010

[12] Der Sarkissian, Clio; Brotherton, Paul; Balanovsky, Oleg; Templeton, Jennifer E. L.; Llamas, Bastien; Soubrier, Julien; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Khartanovich, Valery; Cooper, Alan; Haak, Wolfgang (2014). "Mitochondrial Genome Sequencing in Mesolithic North East Europe Unearths a New Sub-Clade within the Broadly Distributed Human Haplogroup C1". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e87612. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987612D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087612. PMC 3913659. PMID 24503968.

[FOOTNOTEGómez-CarballaCatelli2015-13] Gómez-Carballa & Catelli 2015.

[Starikovskaya2005-14] Starikovskaya, E.B., Sukernik, R.I., Derbeneva, O.A., Volodko, N.V., Ruiz-Pesini, E., Torroni, A., Brown, M.D., Lott, M.T., Hosseini, S.H., Huoponen, K. and Wallace, D.C., "Mitochondrial DNA diversity in indigenous populations of the southern extent of Siberia, and the origins of Native American haplogroups." Annals of Human Genetics 69 (PT 1), 67-89 (2005).

[Ingman2007-15] Ingman, M.; Gyllensten, U. (2007). "Rate variation between mitochondrial domains and adaptive evolution in humans". Human Molecular Genetics. 16 (19): 2281–2287. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddm180. PMID 17617636.

[Lippold2014-16] Sebastian Lippold; et al. (2014). "Human paternal and maternal demographic histories: insights from high-resolution Y chromosome and mtDNA sequences". bioRxiv 10.1101/001792.

[Derenko2007-17] Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; et al. (2007). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in Northern Asian Populations". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 81 (5): 1025–1041. doi:10.1086/522933. PMC 2265662. PMID 17924343.

[Marchi2017-18] Marchi, Nina; Hegay, Tatyana; Mennecier, Philippe; Georges, Myriam; Laurent, Romain; Whitten, Mark; Endicott, Philipp; Aldashev, Almaz; Dorzhu, Choduraa; Nasyrova, Firuza; Chichlo, Boris; Ségurel, Laure; Heyer, Evelyne (2017). "Sex-specific genetic diversity is shaped by cultural factors in Inner Asian human populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (4): 627–640. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23151. PMID 28158897.

[Perego2010-19] U.A. Perego, N. Angerhofer, M. Pala, et al., "The initial peopling of the Americas: a growing number of founding mitochondrial genomes from Beringia." Genome Res. 20 (9), 1174-1179 (2010).

[Kumar2011-20] S. Kumar, C. Bellis, M. Zlojutro, et al., "Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins." BMC Evol. Biol. 11 (1), 293 (2011).

[Malhi2010-21] R.S. Malhi, J.S. Cybulski, R.Y. Tito, et al., "Brief communication: Mitochondrial haplotype C4c confirmed as a founding genome in the Americas." Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 141 (3), 494-497 (2010).

[Peng2017-22] Peng, Min-Sheng; Xu, Weifang; Song, Jiao-Jiao; Chen, Xing; Sulaiman, Xierzhatijiang; Cai, Liuhong; Liu, He-Qun; Wu, Shi-Fang; Gao, Yun; Abdulloevich, Najmudinov Tojiddin; Afanasevna, Manilova Elena; Ibrohimovich, Khudoidodov Behruz; Chen, Xi; Yang, Wei-Kang; Wu, Miao; Li, Gui-Mei; Yang, Xing-Yan; Rakha, Allah; Yao, Yong-Gang; Upur, Halmurat; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2018). "Mitochondrial genomes uncover the maternal history of the Pamir populations". European Journal of Human Genetics. 26 (1): 124–136. doi:10.1038/s41431-017-0028-8. PMC 5839027. PMID 29187735.

[23] Fu, Qiaomei; Posth, Cosimo; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Petr, Martin; Mallick, Swapan; Fernandes, Daniel; Furtwängler, Anja; Haak, Wolfgang; Meyer, Matthias; Mittnik, Alissa; Nickel, Birgit (June 2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature. 534 (7606): 200–205. Bibcode:2016Natur.534..200F. doi:10.1038/nature17993. hdl:10211.3/198594. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 4943878. PMID 27135931.

[Derenko2013-24] Derenko, M; Malyarchuk, B; Bahmanimehr, A; Denisova, G; Perkova, M; et al. (2013). "Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e80673. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880673D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080673. PMC 3828245. PMID 24244704.

[MielnikSikorska2013-26] Mielnik-Sikorska, M; Daca, P; Malyarchuk, B; Derenko, M; Skonieczna, K; et al. (2013). "The History of Slavs Inferred from Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequences". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e54360. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...854360M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054360. PMC 3544712. PMID 23342138.

[Chandrasekar2009-27] Chandrasekar, A; Kumar, S; Sreenath, J; Sarkar, BN; Urade, BP; et al. (2009). "Updating Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup M in India: Dispersal of Modern Human in South Asian Corridor". PLOS ONE. 4 (10): e7447. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7447C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007447. PMC 2757894. PMID 19823670.

[Derenko2003-28] M. V. Derenko, T. Grzybowski, B. A. Malyarchuk, et al., "Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in South Siberia." Annals of Human Genetics (2003) 67,391–411.

[Dryomov2020-29] Dryomov, S.V., Starikovskaya, E.B., Nazhmidenova, A.M. et al. Genetic legacy of cultures indigenous to the Northeast Asian coast in mitochondrial genomes of nearly extinct maritime tribes. BMC Evol Biol 20, 83 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-020-01652-1

[Ingman2000-30] Ingman, M.; Kaessmann, H.; Paabo, S.; Gyllensten, U. (2000). "Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans". Nature. 408 (6813): 708–713. Bibcode:2000Natur.408..708I. doi:10.1038/35047064. PMID 11130070. S2CID 52850476.

[Tamm2007-32] Tamm, E; Kivisild, T; Reidla, M; Metspalu, M; Smith, DG; Mulligan, CJ; Bravi, CM; Rickards, O; Martinez-Labarga, C; Khusnutdinova, EK; Fedorova, SA; Golubenko, MV; Stepanov, VA; Gubina, MA; Zhadanov, SI; Ossipova, LP; Damba, L; Voevoda, MI; Dipierri, JE; Villems, R; Malhi, RS (2007). "Beringian standstill and spread of Native American founders". PLOS ONE. 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. PMC 1952074. PMID 17786201.

[Kutanan2016-34] Kutanan, Wibhu; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Srikummool, Metawee; Kangwanpong, Daoroong; Ghirotto, Silvia; Brunelli, Andrea; Stoneking, Mark (2016). "Complete mitochondrial genomes of Thai and Lao populations indicate an ancient origin of Austroasiatic groups and demic diffusion in the spread of Tai–Kadai languages". Hum Genet. 136 (1): 85–98. doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1742-y. PMC 5214972. PMID 27837350.

[Jiang2014-37] Jiang,C., Cui,J., Liu,F., Gao,L., Luo,Y., Li,P., Guan,L. and Gao,Y., "Mitochondrial DNA 10609T Promotes Hypoxia-Induced Increase of Intracellular ROS and Is a Risk Factor of High Altitude Polycythemia." PLoS ONE 9 (1), E87775 (2014).

[Ji2012-38] Fuyun Ji, Mark S. Sharpley, Olga Derbeneva, et al., "Mitochondrial DNA variant associated with Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and high-altitude Tibetans." PNAS May 8, 2012 109 (19) 7391-7396; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1202484109.

[Kutanan2018-39] Kutanan, Wibhu; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Changmai, Piya; et al. (2018). "Contrasting maternal and paternal genetic variation of hunter-gatherer groups in Thailand". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 1536. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.1536K. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20020-0. PMC 5784115. PMID 29367746.

[Kong2003-40] Kong, Q.P.; Yao, Y.G.; Sun, C.; Bandelt, H.J.; Zhu, C.L.; Zhang, Y.P. (2003). "Phylogeny of east Asian mitochondrial DNA lineages inferred from complete sequences". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73 (3): 671–676. doi:10.1086/377718. PMC 1180693. PMID 12870132.

[Zhang2011-41] Zhang,A.M., Bandelt,H.J., Jia,X., Zhang,W., Li,S., Yu,D., Wang,D., Zhuang,X.Y., Zhang,Q., and Yao,Y.G., "Is Mitochondrial tRNA Variant m.593T>C a Synergistically Pathogenic Mutation in Chinese LHON Families with m.11778G>A?" PLoS ONE 6 (10), E26511 (2011).

[Wang2007-42] Wang, C.Y.; Wang, H.W.; Yao, Y.G.; Kong, Q.P.; Zhang, Y.P. (2007). "Somatic mutations of mitochondrial genome in early stage breast cancer". Int. J. Cancer. 121 (6): 1253–1256. doi:10.1002/ijc.22822. PMID 17514652. S2CID 36734968.