Jōmon people

Jōmon people (縄文人, Jōmon jin) is the generic name of several peoples who lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period. Today, most Japanese historians raise the possibility that the Jōmon were not a single homogeneous people but consisted of multiple heterogeneous groups.[1][2] According to one study in September 2019, modern Japanese people have inherited on average about 10% of their genome from a Jōmon population represented by a specimen obtained from the Funadomari archaeological site on Rebun Island.[3] The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have higher amounts of Jōmon ancestry than the Japanese do.

Morphological characteristics
Male skull of the late Jōmon Period (replica). Excavated at Miyano Kaizuka (Iwate Prefecture). Exhibition in National Museum of Nature and Science.[4]

Several studies of numerous Jōmon skeletal remains that were excavated from various locations in the Japanese Archipelago allowed researchers to examine geographical differences during the Jōmon Period. However, very little geographical variation has been reported in many of these previous studies (e.g. Ogata, 1981; Dodo, 1982; Yamaguchi, 1982; Hanihara and Uchida, 1985; Mouri, 1988; Kondo, 1993, 1994). This has led researchers to regard the Jōmon as a morphologically homogeneous population.[5]

Jōmon woman skull and restoration model - Niigata Prefectural Museum of History.

Tsunehiko Hanihara of the Department of Anatomy at Jichi Medical School suggests that the inhabitants of Aogashima and Okinawa, Minatogawa Man, the Jōmon and the modern Ainu are most likely directly descended from Proto-Mongoloids of Late Pleistocene Sundaland.[6] Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (1996) at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, suggests that the Jōmon were Paleo-Mongoloid.[7]

A dental morphology study shows the Jōmon and Ainu have their own dental structure, but are generally closer to the Sundadont groups which is more common in Southeast Asia (Turner, 1990).[8] Nevertheless, the Ainu dental morphology differ from Sundadont in that the dental size is smaller.[9]

Brace (1990) said that the Jōmon people share many physical characteristics with Caucasians, but form a separate genetic lineage than that of modern Europeans.[10]

A craniometric study by Brace et al. (2001) shows a closer morphological relation of the Jōmon and Ainu people to prehistoric and modern Europeans rather than to other contemporary East Asians. The study concludes that the Jōmon people are descendants of a population (dubbed "Eurasians" by Brace et al.) that moved into northern Eurasia (and also the Americas) in the Late Pleistocene, which significantly predates the expansion of the modern core population of East Asia.[11]

Other studies suggest that the Jōmon people were not a homogenous group and rather heterogeneous. According to Ishida et al. 2009, the majority of Jōmon appear similar to Bronze Age southern Siberians. There is evidence that the Jōmon retained features of Paleolithic populations from the western half of Eurasia (Europe), Central Asia and or southern Siberia.[9] On the other hand Jomon groups on Kyushu, Shikoku and parts of southern Honshu show similarities to East-Asian (Mongoloid) phenotypes.[12]

According to “Jōmon culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago” by Schmidt and Seguchi (2014), the prehistoric Jōmon people descended from diverse paleolithic populations. Other cited scholars point out similarities between the average Jōmon and various paleolithic and Bronze Age Siberians/Central Asians. Nevertheless there were likely multiple migrations into Jōmon-period Japan. They concluded: "In this respect, the biological identity of the Jomon is heterogeneous, and it may be indicative of diverse peoples who possibly belonged to a common culture, known as the Jomon".[13]

Languages

It is not known what language or languages were spoken during the Jōmon period. Suggested languages are: The Ainu language, Japonic languages, Tungusic languages, Austronesian languages, Paleosiberian languages or unknown and today extinct languages.[14][15]

While the most supported view is to equate the Ainu language with the Jōmon language, this view is not unproblematic as at least four tribes in central- and western-Japan are believed to have spoken a Tungusic language, at least three tribes in Kyushu and Okinawa an Austronesian language and it is not known if there were other groups with different languages too.[2]

A study by Lee and Hasegawa of the Waseda University, found evidence that the Ainu language originated from the Northeast Asian/Okhotsk population, which established themselves in northern Hokkaido and expanded into large parts of Honshu and the Kurils and had significant impact on the formation of the Jōmon culture and ethnicities.[16]

Culture

The culture of the Jōmon people is known as "Jōmon culture". It was largely based on food collection and hunting but it is also suggested that the Jōmon people practiced early agriculture. They gathered tree nuts and shellfish, laid the foundations for living such as hunting and fishing, and also made some cultivation. They used stoneware and pottery, and lived in a pit dwelling.[17]

Some elements of modern Japanese culture may have come from Jōmon groups. Among these elements are the precursors to Shinto, some marriage customs, some architectural styles, and possibly some technological developments such as lacquerware, laminated yumi, metalworking, and glass making.

Pottery

The Jōmon pottery style used by the Jōmon is a “cord-marked” style and is the name contributor for the Jōmon period. The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in East Asia and the world.[18] Next to clay pots and vessels, the Jōmon also made many highly stylized statues (Dogū), clay masks, stone batons or rods and swords.[19]

Craftsmanship

There is evidence that the Jōmon people built ships out of big trees and used them for fishing and traveling. There is no agreement if they used sails or paddles.[20] The Jōmon also used Obsidian, Jade and different kinds of wood.[21] The Jōmon created many jewelry and ornamental items. The Magatama was likely invented by one of the Jōmon tribes and is commonly found in Japan.[19]

Religion

The religion of, at least some, Jōmon people was similar to early Shintoism (see Ko-Shintō). It was largely based on animism and possibly shamanism. Other likely similar religions are the Ryukyuan and Ainu religion.[22]

Descendants

This section deals with the suggested descendants of the people during the Jōmon period.

Ainu people
Historical extent of the Ainu people

It is generally agreed that the Ainu people are the direct descendants of the various Jōmon period tribes of Hokkaido.

A recent genetic study (Gakuhari et al. 2019) suggests about 79.3% of the ancestry of the Ainu comes from the Hokkaido Jōmon.[23][24] A study by Kanazawa-Kiriyama et al. (2019) suggests about 66% Hokkaido Jōmon ancestry in the Ainu.[25]

According to Lee and Hasegawa of the Waseda University, the direct ancestors of the later Ainu people formed from the combination of a distinctive Paleolithic population from Central Asia and an ancient Northeast Asian population (Okhotsk people) during the Jōmon period in northern Hokkaido, long before the arrival of contemporary Japanese people. From there, the ancestors of the Ainu speakers expanded into large parts of Honshu and the Kurils. Lee and Hasegawa presented evidence that the Ainu language originated from the Northeast Asian/Okhotsk population, which established themselves in northern Hokkaido and had significant impact on the formation of the Jōmon culture and ethnicities.[26]

Emishi

The Emishi, a former non-Yamato group in central Honshu, are often linked to the Ainu people, but several historians suggest that they were their own Jōmon group and did not share close cultural connections to the Ainu.

The Satsumon Culture of northern Honshu, one of the cultures that merged to originate the Ainu culture, is often speculated to be related to the Emishi culture.[27]

Other historians suggest that the Emishi were in fact largely Japanese people speaking the Izumo dialect of the Japonic languages, which resisted the imperial rule of the Yamato Dynasty.[28]

Siberian populations

Some ethnic groups in southeastern Siberia, such as the Ulch people, the Nivkh people and the Itelmens, show some Ainu-like genome informations. It is suggested that ancient Jōmon people migrated to parts of Siberia and mixed with the local population.[29]

Yamato people

The Yamato Japanese are mostly descended from the Yayoi people but also have admixture from the Jōmon people. It is estimated that the Jōmon ancestry is less than 20%.[30] Another study estimates the Jōmon ancestry in people from Tokyo at approximately 12%.[31] One study estimates about 10% of Jōmon ancestry in modern Yamato people.[32]

Recent studies suggest that the Japanese people descend mostly from the Yayoi people, and that the Yayoi largely displaced the local Jōmon.[33]

Another genome research (Takahashi et al. 2019) further confirms that modern Japanese (Yamato) descend mostly from the Yayoi people. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Jōmon and modern Japanese samples show that there is a discontinuity between the mtDNAs of people from the Jōmon period and people from the Kofun and Heian periods. This finding implies that the genetic conversion of the Japanese people may have occurred during or before the Kofun era, at least at the Shomyoji site.[34] A study on autosomal DNA by Gakuhari et al. (2019) suggests about 9.8% Jōmon ancestry in the modern Japanese, while a geneflow estimation of the same study suggests 3.3% Jōmon ancestry, with the remainder being from the Yayoi people.[35] Another study on autosomal DNA by Kanazawa-Kiriyama et al. (2019) finds about 9-13% Jōmon ancestry in the modern Japanese (with the remainder being from the Yayoi).[36]

Ryukyuan people

According to several studies, the Ryukyuan people share more alleles with the Jōmon period (16,000–3,000 years ago) hunter-gatherers and Ainu people than the Yamato Japanese, have smaller genetic contributions from Asian continental populations, which supports the dual-structure model of K. Hanihara (1991), a widely accepted theory which suggests that the Yamato Japanese are more admixed with Asian agricultural continental people (from the Korean Peninsula) than the Ainu and the Ryukyuans, with major admixture occurring in and after the Yayoi period (3,000-1,700 years ago).[30][37][38][39][40][41][42]

Within the Japanese population, the Ryukyuans make a separate and one of the two genome-wide clusters along the main-island Honshu.[43][44] The Jōmon ancestry is estimated at approximately 28%[45] or 50-60%,[46][47][48] depending on various studies. The admixture event which formed the admixed Ryukyuans was estimated at least 1100–1075 years ago, which corresponds to the Gusuku period, and is considered to be related to the arrival of migrants from Japan.[45] Thus, the Ryukyuans appear to be genetically closest to the Ainu from the Ainu viewpoint, whereas it is exactly the opposite from the Ryukyuans' viewpoint, who are closest to the Yamato Japanese.[47]

According to recent genome studies, Ryukyuans and especially Okinawans are closest to other East Asians but are also relative homogenous on a genetic level. The study did not find much evidence for a strong Jōmon influence on Ryukyuans. On average, the Okinawans were found to share 80.8% admixture with Japanese and 19.2% admixture with Chinese. Individual admixture estimates were quite variable and ranged from 5.84% to 57.82% Chinese admixture,[39] which likely coincides with historical migrations of Chinese people to Okinawa.[49]

A study by Kanazawa-Kiriyama et al. (2019) suggests that Ryukyuans inherit about 27% of their ancestry from the Jōmon (with rest being from the Yayoi people).[50]

Genetics
Further information: Genetic history of East Asians

Proposed Origin

There are several theories about their origin. Some suggested Southeast Asia or Northeast Asia as possible place of origin, while other theories supported an origin in East Asia itself. The newest genetic studies conclude that the Jōmon formed from various populations from continental Eurasia.[9][31][51]

The Jōmon, when compared with worldwide populations, are relative closest to East Asians compared with African, European, Sahulian (Australo-Melanesian) and Native American groups. The comparison with the genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data of HGDP (Human Genome Diversity Panel) populations also showed the unique status of the Sanganji Jōmon , who was positioned far apart from all modern East Eurasians. The uniqueness of the Sanganji Jōmon within East Eurasians is consistent with the results including Europeans and Africans. When the Ainu, the mainland Japanese and the Ryukyuans from the Japanese Archipelago and CHB28 (Chinese from Beijing) were compared with Sanganji Jōmon, PC1 separated the Ainu and Sanganji Jōmon from the other populations. The population closest to the Sanganji Jōmon was the Ainu, followed by the Ryukyuan and then the mainland Japanese.[30]

Most scientists today suggest that the Jōmon are descendants of an ancient continental Eurasian population. The Jōmon cluster as own clade, distinct from other human population groups including East Asians, but share some relations to coastal people of East Asia, including modern Japanese, Ulchi, Koreans and native Taiwanese.[52]

According to one study the Jōmon people are an admixture of two distinct ethnic groups: A more ancient group from Central Asia (carriers of Y chromosome D-M55), that were present since more than 30,000 years in Japan and a more recent group (carriers of Y chromosome C1a) that migrated to Japan about 13,000 years ago.[53]

Haplogroup D1 arrived from Central Asia to northern Kyushu via the Altai Mountains and the Korean Peninsula more than 40,000 years before present, and Haplogroup D-M55 (D1a2) was born in Japanese archipelago. D-M55 is distinct from other D-branches since more than 53,000 years and has five unique mutations not found the others.[53][54]

C1a1's ancestral type reached Japan over the Korean Peninsula. Although its age of arrival is unknown, the spread of the existing subgroup is about 12,000 years ago, which is almost consistent with the start of the Jōmon period.[53][55]

An overview article of recent genetic and morphological studies also suggest multiple origins for the Jōmon populations.[56]

A study by Lee and Hasegawa of the Waseda University, concluded that the Jōmon period population consisted largely of a distinctive Paleolithic population from Central Asia and an ancient Northeast Asian population of (Okhotsk people, with both arriving at different times during the Jōmon period in Japan. They further concluded that the "dual structure theory" regarding the population history of Japan must be revised and that the Jōmon people had more diversity than originally suggested.[57]

Recent full genome analyses in 2020 reveals some further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. They were found to have largely formed from a Paleolithic Siberian/Central Asian population and an East Asian related population.[58][59]

One study, published in the Cambridge University Press in 2020, suggests that the Jōmon people were rather heterogeneous, and that there was also an “Altaic-like” pre-Yayoi population (close to modern Northeast Asians) in Jōmon period Japan, which established itself over the local hunter gatherers. This “Altaic-like” population migrated from Northeast Asia in about 6000BC, before the actual Yayoi migration and introduced the Incipient Jōmon culture, typified by early ceramic cultures such as the Ōdai Yamamoto Jōmon site. The authors additionally note that Austronesian peoples were possibly present in southernmost Japan (especially in Sakishima) before the arrival of the Yayoi people.[60]

Paternal lineages

It is thought that the haplogroups D-M55 (D1a2) and C1a1 as well as C-M217 were frequent in Jōmon people. One Jōmon man excavated from Rebun Island was found to belong to Haplogroup D1a2b1(D-CTS 220).[61] Haplogroup D-M55 is found in about 35%[62] and haplogroup C1a1 in about 6% of modern Japanese people.[51][63][64] In addition, it is assumed that the haplogroup C2 existed in a small amount of Jōmon people.[65]

D-M55 is only found in Japanese (Ainu, Ryukyuans, and Yamato).[66] Haplogroup C1a1 has been found in modern Japanese at a frequency of 6%. Elsewhere it was found at low frequency in Koreans, and northeast Chinese.[53] Recently it was confirmed that the Japanese branch of haplogroup D-M55 is distinct and isolated from other D-branches since more than 53,000 years. The split between D1a2-M55 and D1a-F6251 (the latter of which is common in Tibet and has a moderate distribution in the rest of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia) may have occurred in Central Asia, while some others suggest an instant split during the origin of haplogroup D itself, as the Japanese branch has five unique mutations not found in any other D-branch.[54]

A recent DNA study in 2019 suggests that haplogroup D-M55 was carried by about 70% and haplogroup C1a1 by about 30% of the ancient Jōmon people. A specific Japanese-Jōmon clade is only found in ancient Jōmon and modern Japanese. No other population was found to carry this specific clade, which supports the distinct position of the Jōmon population.[67]

C1a1 and C2 are linked to autochthonus Amur people, which arrived in the Jōmon period archipelago from Northeast Asia in about 6,000 BC and introduced the Incipient Jōmon culture, typified by early ceramic cultures such as the Ōdai Yamamoto I Site.[68]

Maternal lineages

MtDNA Haplogroup Jōmon people is characterized by the presence of haplogroups M7a and N9b. Studies published in 2004 and 2007 show the combined frequency of M7a and N9b observed in modern Japanese to be from 12~15% to 17% in mainstream Japanese.[69][70] N9b is frequently found in the Hokkaido Jomons while M7a is found frequently in the Tohoku Jomons.[71]

M7a is estimated to share a most recent common ancestor with M7b'c, a clade whose members are found mainly in Japan (including Jōmon people), other parts of East Asia, and Southeast Asia, 33,500 (95% CI 26,300 <-> 42,000) years before present.[72] All extant members of haplogroup M7a are estimated to share a most recent common ancestor 20,500 (95% CI 14,700 <-> 27,800) years before present.[72] Haplogroup M7a now has its highest frequency in Okinawa.

Haplogroup N9b is estimated to share a most recent common ancestor with N9a and Y, two clades that are widespread in eastern Asia, 37,700 (95% CI 29,600 <-> 47,300) years before present.[72] All extant members of haplogroup N9b are estimated to share a most recent common ancestor 21,100 (95% CI 16,700 <-> 26,200) years before present.[72] Haplogroup N9b now has its highest frequency among Tungusic peoples in southeastern Siberia (especially Udeges), but it has been found to be very common in skeletal remains of Jōmon people of northern Japan (Tōhoku and Hokkaidō).

In addition, haplogroups D4, D5, M7b, M8, M9a, M10, G, A, B, and F have been found in Jōmon people as well.[73][74][75] These latter haplogroups are all distributed widely among populations of East Asia (including modern Japanese, Ryukyuans, and Ainus) and Southeast Asia, but some of their subclades are distributed almost exclusively in Japan.

ATL retrovirus

A gene common in Jōmon people is a retrovirus of ATL (human T lymphotropic virus, HTVL-I). This virus was discovered as a cause of adult T cell leukemia (ATL), and research was advanced by Takuo Hinuma of Kyoto University Virus Research Institute.

Although it was known that many virus carriers existed in Japan, it was not found at all in neighboring countries of East Asia. Meanwhile, it has been found in many Africans, Native Americans, Tibetans, Siberians, Burmese people, Indigenous people of New Guinea, Polynesians, etc. Looking at distribution in Japan, it is seen particularly frequently in southern Kyushu, Nagasaki Prefecture, Okinawa and among the Ainu. And it is seen at medium frequency in the southern part of Shikoku, southern part of the Kii Peninsula, the Pacific side of the Tōhoku region (Sanriku) and Oki Islands. Overall, carriers of the ATL retrovirus were found to be more common in remote areas and remote islands. When examining the well-developed areas of ATL in each region of Kyushu, Shikoku, and Tōhoku in detail, carriers are preserved at high rates in small settlements that were isolated from the surroundings and inconvenient for traffic.

The path of natural infection of this virus is limited to vertical infection between women and children (most often through breastfeeding) and horizontal infection between males and females (most often from males to females through sexual intercourse).[76]

Based on the above, Hinuma concluded that the high frequency area of this virus indicates the high density remain of Jōmon people.[77]

Ikawazu Jōmon studies of 2018

A partial genome analysis by McColl et al. in 2018 about the prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia analysed 26 ancient samples from Southeast Asia spanning from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age. They analysed an Ikawazu Jōmon (named IK002) sample from southeast Honshu, and a draft sequence of the Jōmon genome was determined from IK002. The Jōmon female skeleton which was analyzed shows typical Jōmon morphology.[78] This Jōmon individual was found to share some ancestry with prehistoric Hoabinhians, who also share some ancestry with Onge, Jehai (Peninsular Malaysia) in mainland Southeast Asia along with Indian groups and Papua New Guineans, which represents possible gene flow from that group into the Jōmon population.[79] On the 'Admixture graphs fitting ancient Southeast Asian genomes' Using qpGraph, present-day East Asians can be modeled as a mixture of an Önge-like population and a population related to the Tiányuán individual. While The Jōmon individual is modeled as a mix of Hòabìnhian (La368) and East Asian ancestry.[80][81] Her mitochondrial mtDNA is Haplogroup N9b which is typical of Northeast Siberian populations, this haplogroups in present-day Japaneses people (< 2.0%), but typically found in previous studies of Jomon mtDNA[82] N9b 4% in Okinawans, 6.9% in modern Ulchi 8% in Modern Ainu, 32.3% in the Udegey, People of the Amur-Ussuri where the region carry high frequencies of N9b.[69][70][83]

A more recent genetic study by Gakuhari et al. 2020, using the Ikawazu Jōmon (IK002), next to two additional Jōmon samples from northern Honshu and Hokkaido, found contradicting results. The Jōmon people descended from an Upper Paleolithic population and does not share some ancestry with Hoabhinians as suggested by McColl in 2018. The authors note that there is no genetic evidence for a shared ancestry or genetic drift between the ancestral Jōmon lineage and the Onge. They reject the conclusion by McColl and concluded that there is no evidence that Jōmon formed from admixture of Onge/Hoabhinians and Ami-related groups but that the Jōmon are the direct descendants of the Upper Paleolithic population which arrived in Japan about 35,000 years ago. The Jōmon samples (including IK002), were additionally found to be distinct from ancient and modern East-Eurasians and appear basal to East and Northeast Asians as well as Native Americans. Additionally, IK002 shows some affinity to the Amis people (one of the many Taiwanese indigenous peoples), which may support a later coastal movement of Jōmon people and ancestry into these Native Taiwanese and other coastal populations. An ancestral component unique to IK002 is the most prevalent in the Hokkaido Ainu (average 79.3%). This component is also found at a minor percentage in mainland Japanese as well as eastern Siberian groups around the Sea of Okhotsk, such as the Ulchi who are natives in the Ulchsky District of Khabarovsk Krai. IK002 can be modelled as a basal lineage relative closer to modern East Asians, Northeast Asia/East Siberians, and Native Americans but not ancient or modern Southeast Asians.[84]

Additionally the authors note the possible link between the microblade culture around Lake Baikal during the Paleolithic period and Jōmon period Hokkaido. The microblade culture is suggested to have arrived in Japan about ~25,000 years ago. Further they conclud that their results support the "dual structure model" for the origin of modern Japanese. The modern Japanese cluster closely with other East Asians but not with Ikawazu Jōmon. However geneflow from IK002 into Japanese is detected.[85]

Funadomari Jōmon study (2019)

A full genome analysis,[86] using high-confidence SNPs and functional SNP assessments to assign possible phenotypic characteristics as well as Y-chromosome polymorphisms, analysed a male and a female Jomon sample. The Funadomari archaeological site is located on a sandbar separating Lake Kushu from Funadomari Bay on the north coast of Rebun Island, a small island off the northwestern tip of Hokkaidō. The study results suggest that the Jōmon are their own distinct population and not closely related to other populations. The Funadomari Jōmon are not related to Australo-Melanesians (including Andamanese) or Africans. The Jōmon are closer to Eurasian populations and form a cluster near the “Basal East Asians”.

Modern Japanese share about 9% to 13% of their genome with the Jōmon. Jōmon specific genome is also found in minor percentage in populations of Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia, suggesting gene-flow from Jōmon related groups. Additionally, the Jōmon share specific gene alleles with populations in the Arctic regions of Eurasia and northern America.

Tests using phylogenetic relationship suggests that the Funadomari Jōmon have about 86% East Asian related ancestry and about 14% West Asian/European related ancestry. According to the authors, more data is needed to explain these results and possible consequences.

Rebun Jōmon study (2019)

Another full genome analysis of a 3,800 year old Jōmon woman shows that this sample shared gene variants which are found only in Arctic populations of Eurasia, but are absent elsewhere. According to the authors this provides evidence that the Jomon fished and hunted fatty sea and land animals. The sample also showed a higher alcohol tolerance than other Eastern Eurasian populations. Further analysis suggest that the Jōmon sample was at high risk of developing liver spots if she spent to much time in the sun. The Jōmon sample had wet earwax, which is rare among modern East Asian populations. Despite the strong differences, the Rebun Jōmon sample is relative closest to modern Japanese. Additionally the Rebun Jōmon sample is also relative closer to coastal groups such as Ulchi in Russia and some aboriginal Taiwanese than to Han-Chinese.[87][88]

A facial reconstruction in 2018 based on genome information of a 3,800 year old Jomon women from Rebun Island in Hokkaido showed that the color of the woman's skin was slightly darker than that of modern Japanese, her hair was thin and fine, and that the color of her eyes was light brown. Additionally, analysis revealed that the woman had blood type A+.[89]

Full genome analyses of 2020

A full genome analysis published in 2020, analysed for the first time the complete genome of several Jōmon samples. The results were "rather surprising" and complicate the peopling of Asia. The Jōmon people were found to be genetically distinct and not related to "Basal-Asians" (such as the Tianyuan and Hoabhinians). This disproves the hypothese of a possible Southeast Asian origin for the Jōmon which was proposed by a small amount of scholars.[90]

The Jōmon do not share a special relationship with Hòabìnhians as previously suggested (McColl et al., 2018). Tests of genetic similarity do not show Hòabìnhians or the Jōmon sharing exceptionally high genetic similarity with each other.

The Jōmon share relatively most genome with Paleolithic Siberians, as well as with modern people in Japan and various groups around the Sea of Okhotsk.[90]

In another analysis in 2020 of modern and ancient East-Eurasian samples from Southeast Asia, East Asia and Siberia researchers found that the Jōmon people (named "Jōmon_HG" for Jomon period hunter gatherers) could be modeled from two distinct components: one "East Asian-related" component and one "Paleolithic Siberian/Central Asian" component. They could not reproduce the modeled partially shared ancestry between Jōmon and Hoabhinians (Andamanese) as suggested in a 2018 study by McColl, but found contrary evidence that a "Paleolithic Siberian/Central Asian" population contributed ancestry to the Jōmon period hunter gatherers and less to ancient Southeast Asians as well as ancient Tibetans.[91]

Aspects of the Jōmon culture were used in the video game “The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild”. Nintendo's art director Takizawa Satoru said that the Jōmon culture was the inspiration for the “Sheikah slates, shrines and other ancient objects” in the game.[92]

A recreated Jōmon village in the form of an experience park (Sarashina no Sato), which offers different activities, can be visited in Chikuma, Nagano.[93]

See also

References
  1. Professor, Miura Sukeyuki-; University, Rissho; Director, Shinoda Kenichi-; Anthropology, Department of; Nature, Japanese National Museum of; Science (2016-06-03). "The Origins of Japanese Culture Uncovered Using DNA ―What happens when we cut into the world of the Kojiki myths using the latest science". Discuss Japan－Japan Foreign Policy Forum. Retrieved 2019-01-21.
  2. "蝦夷とアテルイ". masakawai.suppa.jp. Retrieved 2019-03-26.
  3. "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery | NHK WORLD-JAPAN News". NHK WORLD. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  4. http://shinkan.kahaku.go.jp/kiosk/nihon_con/N2/KA2-1/japanese/TAB1/img/M01_g03_con.png (in Japanese)
  5. Matsumura, Hirofumi; Anezaki, Tomoko; Ishida, Hajime (2001). "A Morphometric Analysis of Jomon Skeletons from the Funadomari Site on Rebun Island, Hokkaido, Japan". Anthropological Science. 109: 1–21. doi:10.1537/ase.109.1.
  6. Hanihara, Tsunehiko. (1990). Dental Anthropological Evidence of Affinities among the Oceania and the Pan-Pacific Populations: The Basic Populations in East Asia, II. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 98(3). Page 242. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from link.
  7. Takeru Akazawa and Emóke J.E. Sathmåry. Prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals. New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.
  8. Anthropological Science: Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, Volume 101
  9. "Jomon Culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago: advancements in the fields of morphometrics and ancient DNA". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
  10. Koppel, Tom (2010). Lost World: Rewriting Prehistory---How New Science Is Tracing. Simon and Schuster. pp. 389–. ISBN 978-1-4391-1800-9.
  11. C. Loring Brace, A. Russell Nelson, Noriko Seguchi, Hiroaki Oe, Leslie Sering, Pan Qifeng, Li Yongyi, and Dashtseveg Tumen (2001). "Old World sources of the first New World human inhabitants: A comparative craniofacial view". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (17): 10017–10022. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9810017L. doi:10.1073/pnas.171305898. PMC 55570. PMID 11481450.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  12. 上田正昭他『日本古代史の謎再考（エコール・ド・ロイヤル 古代日本を考える１）』 学生社 1983年 pp.52より
  13. Schmidt, Seguchi (2014). "Jōmon culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago" (PDF). These results suggest a level of inter-regional heterogeneity not expected among Jomon groups. This observation is further substantiated by the studies of Kanzawa-Kiriyama et al. (2013) and Adachi et al. (2013). Kanzawa-Kiriyama et al. (2013) analysed craniometrics and extracted aDNA from museum samples that came from the Sanganji shell mound site in Fukushima Prefecture dated to the Final Jomon Period. They tested for regional differences and found the Tokoku Jomon (northern Honshu) were more similar to Hokkaido Jomon than to geographically adjacent Kanto Jomon (central Honshu).
    Adachi et al. (2013) described the craniometrics and aDNA sequence from a Jomon individual from Nagano (Yugora cave site) dated to the middle of the initial Jomon Period (7920–7795 cal BP). This individual carried ancestry, which is widely distributed among modern East Asians (Nohira et al. 2010; Umetsu et al. 2005) and resembled modern Northeast Asian comparison samples rather than geographical close Urawa Jomon sample.
  14. 小泉保（1998）『縄文語の発見』青土社 (in Japanese)
  15. 『古代に真実を求めて 第七集（古田史学論集）』2004年、古田史学の会（編集） (in Japanese)
  16. Lee, Hasegawa, Sean, Toshikazu (April 2013). "Evolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time". In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the results are in strong agreement with the hypothesis that a recent population expansion of the Okhotsk people played a critical role in shaping the Ainu people and their culture. Together with the recent archaeological, biological and cultural evidence, our phylogeographic reconstruction of the Ainu language strongly suggests that the conventional dual-structure model must be refined to explain these new bodies of evidence. The case of the Ainu language origin we report here also contributes additional detail to the global pattern of language evolution, and our language phylogeny might also provide a basis for making further inferences about the cultural dynamics of the Ainu speakers [44,45].
  17. Crawford, Gary W. (2011). "Advances in Understanding Early Agriculture in Japan". Current Anthropology. 52 (S4): S331–S345. doi:10.1086/658369. JSTOR 10.1086/658369.
  18. Kuzmin, Y.V. (2006). "Chronology of the Earliest Pottery in East Asia: Progress and Pitfalls". Antiquity. 80 (308): 362–371. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00093686.
  19. "Jomon crafts and what they were for". Heritage of Japan. 2007-07-12. Retrieved 2019-08-26.
  20. 堤隆は旧石器時代の神津島での黒曜石採取については、丸木舟を建造出来るような石器が存在しなかったことから考えて、カヤックのようなスキンボートを使用したのではないかと指摘している（堤隆『黒曜石3万年の旅』NHKブックス、2004年、93ページ）
  21. 本節の典拠は橋口、前掲書、158-172ページ
  22. Richard Pilgrim, Robert Ellwood (1985). Japanese Religion (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-13-509282-8.
  23. Khan, Razib (2019-05-24). "The Jomon contributed little to the Japanese". Gene Expression. Retrieved 2019-11-17.
  24. Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (March 15, 2019) [2019]. "Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history" (PDF). bioRxiv: 3–5. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. Late Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan - Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science 2018/2019en
  26. Lee, Hasegawa, Sean, Toshikazu (April 2013). "Evolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time". In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the results are in strong agreement with the hypothesis that a recent population expansion of the Okhotsk people played a critical role in shaping the Ainu people and their culture. Together with the recent archaeological, biological and cultural evidence, our phylogeographic reconstruction of the Ainu language strongly suggests that the conventional dual-structure model must be refined to explain these new bodies of evidence. The case of the Ainu language origin we report here also contributes additional detail to the global pattern of language evolution, and our language phylogeny might also provide a basis for making further inferences about the cultural dynamics of the Ainu speakers [44,45].
  27. Imamura, Keiji (1996). Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824818524.
  28. Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020/ed). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN 2513-843X. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. Jeong, Choongwon; Nakagome, Shigeki; Di Rienzo, Anna (January 2016). "Deep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu". Genetics. 202 (1): 261–272. doi:10.1534/genetics.115.178673. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 4701090. PMID 26500257.
  30. Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Kryukov, Kirill; Jinam, Timothy A; Hosomichi, Kazuyoshi; Saso, Aiko; Suwa, Gen; Ueda, Shintaroh; Yoneda, Minoru; Tajima, Atsushi (February 2017). "A partial nuclear genome of the Jomons who lived 3000 years ago in Fukushima, Japan". Journal of Human Genetics. 62 (2): 213–221. doi:10.1038/jhg.2016.110. ISSN 1434-5161. PMC 5285490. PMID 27581845.
  31. "「縄文人」は独自進化したアジアの特異集団だった！ : 深読み". 読売新聞オンライン (in Japanese). 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
  32. "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery | NHK WORLD-JAPAN News". NHK WORLD. Retrieved 2020-11-19.
  33. "Common ancestor of Han Chinese, Japanese and Koreans dated to 3000 – 3600 years ago". On Biology. 2018-04-10. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  34. Nara, Takashi; Adachi, Noboru; Yoneda, Minoru; Hagihara, Yasuo; Saeki, Fumiko; Koibuchi, Ryoko; Takahashi, Ryohei (2019). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the human skeletons excavated from the Shomyoji shell midden site, Kanagawa, Japan". Anthropological Science. 127 (1): 65–72. doi:10.1537/ase.190307. ISSN 0918-7960.
  35. Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (March 15, 2019) [2019]. "Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history" (PDF). bioRxiv: 3–5. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. Late Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan - Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science 2018/2019en
  37. Saitou, Naruya; Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Jinam, Timothy A. (2015-06-01). "Human genetic diversity in the Japanese Archipelago: dual structure and beyond". Genes & Genetic Systems. 90 (3): 147–152. doi:10.1266/ggs.90.147. ISSN 1341-7568. PMID 26510569.
  38. Oota, Hiroki; Mano, Shuhei; Kimura, Ryosuke; Yamaguchi, Tetsutaro; Hanihara, Tsunehiko; Ishida, Hajime; Sato, Takehiro; Nakagome, Shigeki (2015-06-01). "Model-Based Verification of Hypotheses on the Origin of Modern Japanese Revisited by Bayesian Inference Based on Genome-Wide SNP Data". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 32 (6): 1533–1543. doi:10.1093/molbev/msv045. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 25758010.
  39. Willcox, Bradley J.; Suzuki, Makoto; Kwok, Pui-Yan; Donlon, Timothy A.; Nievergelt, Caroline M.; Willcox, D. Craig; He, Qimei; Hsueh, Wen-Chi; Bendjilali, Nasrine (2014-12-01). "Who Are the Okinawans? Ancestry, Genome Diversity, and Implications for the Genetic Study of Human Longevity From a Geographically Isolated Population". The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 69 (12): 1474–1484. doi:10.1093/gerona/glt203. ISSN 1079-5006. PMC 4271021. PMID 24444611.
  40. Saitou, Naruya; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Omoto, Keiichi; Niikawa, Norio; Yanagi, Kumiko; Naritomi, Kenji; Kaname, Tadashi; Suto, Yumiko; Mano, Shuhei (December 2012). "The history of human populations in the Japanese Archipelago inferred from genome-wide SNP data with a special reference to the Ainu and the Ryukyuan populations". Journal of Human Genetics. 57 (12): 787–795. doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.114. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 23135232.
  41. Consortium, The Asian Archival Dna Repository; Oota, Hiroki; Kawamura, Shoji; Ishida, Hajime; Nakagome, Shigeki; Katsumura, Takafumi; Koganebuchi, Kae (2012). "Autosomal and Y-chromosomal STR markers reveal a close relationship between Hokkaido Ainu and Ryukyu islanders". Anthropological Science. 120 (3): 199–208. doi:10.1537/ase.120322. ISSN 0918-7960.
  42. Matsukusa, Hirotaka; Oota, Hiroki; Haneji, Kuniaki; Toma, Takashi; Kawamura, Shoji; Ishida, Hajime (2010). "A genetic analysis of the Sakishima islanders reveals no relationship with Taiwan aborigines but shared ancestry with Ainu and main-island Japanese". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 142 (2): 211–223. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21212. ISSN 1096-8644. PMID 20091849.
  43. Yamaguchi-Kabata, Yumi; Nakazono, Kazuyuki; Takahashi, Atsushi; Saito, Susumu; Hosono, Naoya; Kubo, Michiaki; Nakamura, Yusuke; Kamatani, Naoyuki (2008-10-10). "Japanese Population Structure, Based on SNP Genotypes from 7003 Individuals Compared to Other Ethnic Groups: Effects on Population-Based Association Studies". American Journal of Human Genetics. 83 (4): 445–456. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.08.019. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 2561928. PMID 18817904.
  44. Kamatani, Naoyuki; Nakamura, Yusuke; Kubo, Michiaki; Naoya Hosono; Takahashi, Atsushi; Kumasaka, Natsuhiko; Tsunoda, Tatsuhiko; Yamaguchi-Kabata, Yumi (May 2012). "Genetic differences in the two main groups of the Japanese population based on autosomal SNPs and haplotypes". Journal of Human Genetics. 57 (5): 326–334. doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.26. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 22456480.
  45. Saitou, Naruya; Omoto, Keiichi; Katsushi Tokunaga; Inoue, Ituro; Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Hideaki; Jinam, Timothy A. (October 2015). "Unique characteristics of the Ainu population in Northern Japan". Journal of Human Genetics. 60 (10): 565–571. doi:10.1038/jhg.2015.79. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 26178428. S2CID 205166287.
  46. Horai, Satoshi; Stoneking, Mark; Harihara, Shinji; Omoto, Keiichi; Park, Hwayong; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Hammer, Michael F. (January 2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 16328082.
  47. Lounès Chikhi; Rasteiro, Rita (June 2009). "Revisiting the peopling of Japan: an admixture perspective". Journal of Human Genetics. 54 (6): 349–354. doi:10.1038/jhg.2009.39. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 19424284.
  48. Consortium, Pan-Asia SNP; Jin, Li; Xu, Shuhua; Wang, Wei R.; He, Yungang (2012-04-05). "Paleolithic Contingent in Modern Japanese: Estimation and Inference using Genome-wide Data". Scientific Reports. 2: 355. Bibcode:2012NatSR...2E.355H. doi:10.1038/srep00355. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 3320058. PMID 22482036.
  49. Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996-01-01). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791426876.
  50. Late Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan - Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science 2018/2019en
  51. Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, Keiichi; Harihara, Shinji; Stoneking, Mark; Horai, Satoshi (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. ISSN 1434-5161. PMID 16328082.
  52. "'Jomon woman' helps solve Japan's genetic mystery | NHK WORLD-JAPAN News". NHK WORLD. Retrieved 2019-06-17.
  53. 崎谷満『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』（勉誠出版　2009年）(in Japanese)
  54. Mondal, Mayukh & Bergström, Anders & Xue, Yali & Calafell, Francesc & Laayouni, Hafid & Casals, Ferran & Majumder, Partha & Tyler-Smith, Chris & Bertranpetit, Jaume. (2017). Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese. Human Genetics. 136. 10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0.
  55. Scozzari, R; Massaia, A; D'Atanasio, E; Myres, NM; Perego, UA; et al. (2012). "Molecular Dissection of the Basal Clades in the Human Y Chromosome Phylogenetic Tree". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e49170. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749170S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049170. PMC 3492319. PMID 23145109.
  56. Schmidt, Ryan W.; Seguchi, Noriko (2014). "Jomon Culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago: advancements in the fields of morphometrics and ancient DNA" (PDF). Japanese Journal of Arcaheology. 2 (1): 34–59.
  57. Lee, Hasegawa, Sean, Toshikazu (April 2013). "Evolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time". In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the results are in strong agreement with the hypothesis that a recent population expansion of the Okhotsk people played a critical role in shaping the Ainu people and their culture. Together with the recent archaeological, biological and cultural evidence, our phylogeographic reconstruction of the Ainu language strongly suggests that the conventional dual-structure model must be refined to explain these new bodies of evidence. The case of the Ainu language origin we report here also contributes additional detail to the global pattern of language evolution, and our language phylogeny might also provide a basis for making further inferences about the cultural dynamics of the Ainu speakers [44,45].
  58. Yang, Melinda A.; Fan, Xuechun; Sun, Bo; Chen, Chungyu; Lang, Jianfeng; Ko, Ying-Chin; Tsang, Cheng-hwa; Chiu, Hunglin; Wang, Tianyi; Bao, Qingchuan; Wu, Xiaohong (2020-07-17). "Ancient DNA indicates human population shifts and admixture in northern and southern China". Science. 369 (6501): 282–288. doi:10.1126/science.aba0909. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32409524.
  59. Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020/ed). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN 2513-843X. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  60. Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Driem, George van (2020/ed). "Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.14. ISSN 2513-843X. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  61. 神澤ほか(2016)「礼文島船泊縄文人の核ゲノム解析」第70回日本人類学大会 (in Japanese)
  62. Mayukh Monda Anders BergströmYali XueFrancesc CalafellHafid LaayouniFerran CasalsPartha P. MajumderChris Tyler-SmithEmail authorJaume Bertranpetit (2008)Human Genetics May 2017, Volume 136, Issue 5, pp 499–510
  63. Nonaka, I.; Minaguchi, K.; Takezaki, N. (2007). "Y-chromosomal Binary Haplogroups in the Japanese Population and their Relationship to 16 Y-STR Polymorphisms". Annals of Human Genetics. 71 (4): 480–495. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00343.x. hdl:10130/491. PMID 17274803. S2CID 1041367.
  64. Youichi Sato, Toshikatsu Shinka, Ashraf A. Ewis, Aiko Yamauchi, Teruaki Iwamoto, Yutaka Nakahori, et al., "Overview of genetic variation in the Y chromosome of modern Japanese males." Anthropological Science Vol. 122(3), 131–136, 2014.
  65. 崎谷満 (2009)『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』勉誠出版 (in Japanese)　
  66. Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, Keiichi; Harihara, Shinji; Stoneking, Mark; Horai, Satoshi (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: Common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082.
  67. Ohashi, Jun; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Hitomi, Yuki; Sawai, Hiromi; Khor, Seik-Soon; Naka, Izumi; Watanabe, Yusuke (2019-06-17). "Analysis of whole Y-chromosome sequences reveals the Japanese population history in the Jomon period". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 8556. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.8556W. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44473-z. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6572846. PMID 31209235.
  68. Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Driem, George van (2020/ed). "Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.14. ISSN 2513-843X. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  69. M. Tanaka, V. M. Cabrera, A. M. González et al. (2004), "Mitochondrial Genome Variation in Eastern Asia and the Peopling of Japan"
  70. Uchiyama, Taketo; Hisazumi, Rinnosuke; Shimizu, Kenshi; et al. (2007). "Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation and Phylogenetic Analysis in Japanese Individuals from Miyazaki Prefecture". Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology. 12 (1): 83–96. doi:10.3408/jafst.12.83.
  71. Ancient mitochondrial DNA sequences of Jomon teeth samples from Sanganji, Tohoku district, Japan.
  72. YFull MTree 1.01.5902 as of April 20, 2019
  73. 2017 度第４回日本海学講座 2018年1月13日（土）富山県民会館611号室 14:00～15:30 「日本海地域における日本人の歴史－小竹貝塚出土人骨を中心として－」 国立科学博物館 研究主幹 坂上和弘氏
  74. 篠田謙一『日本人になった祖先たち—DNAから解明するその多元的構造』日本放送出版協会・NHKブックス、2007年 (in Japanese)
  75. Genetic structure of the Japanese and the formation of the Ainu population
  76. Coffin JM, Hughes SH, Varmus HE, editors. Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1997.
  77. Hinuma, Takeo (1998). "From the virus to Japan Explore the Origin of Human". Journal of Japanese Rural Medicine. 46 (6): 908–911. doi:10.2185/jjrm.46.908.
  78. "Prehistoric Peopling in Southeast Asia ‒ Genome Analysis of Jōmon and Other Ancient Skeletons | Kanazawa University".
  79. Willerslev, Eske; Lambert, David M.; Higham, Charles; Oota, Hiroki; Phipps, Maude E.; Sikora, Martin; Orlando, Ludovic; Lahr, Marta Mirazón; Foley, Robert A. (2018-07-06). "The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia". Science. 361 (6397): 88–92. Bibcode:2018Sci...361...88M. doi:10.1126/science.aat3628. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29976827. “Finally, the Jōmon individual is best-modeled as a mix between a population related to group 1/Önge and a population related to East Asians (Amis)” and “The oldest layer consists of mainland Hòabìnhians (group 1), who share ancestry with present-day Andamanese Önge, Malaysian Jehai, and the ancient Japanese Ikawazu Jōmon. Consistent with the two-layer hypothesis in MSEA, we observe a change in ancestry by ~4 ka ago, supporting a demographic expansion from EA into SEA during the Neolithic transition to farming.” and “Group 1 individuals differ from the other Southeast Asian ancient samples in containing components shared with the supposed descendants of the Hòabìnhians: the Önge and the Jehai (Peninsular Malaysia), along with groups from India and Papua New Guinea.”
  80. Fig. 3 Admixture graphs fitting ancient Southeast Asian genomes
  81. McColl, Hugh; Racimo, Fernando; Vinner, Lasse; Demeter, Fabrice; Gakuhari, Takashi; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Van Driem, George; Gram Wilken, Uffe; Seguin-Orlando, Andaine; de la Fuente Castro, Constanza; Wasef, Sally; Shoocongdej, Rasmi; Souksavatdy, Viengkeo; Sayavongkhamdy, Thongsa; Saidin, Mohd Mokhtar; Allentoft, Morten E.; Sato, Takehiro; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Aghakhanian, Farhang A.; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Prohaska, Ana; Margaryan, Ashot; De Barros Damgaard, Peter; Kaewsutthi, Supannee; Lertrit, Patcharee; Nguyen, Thi Mai Huong; Hung, Hsiao-Chun; Minh Tran, Thi; Nghia Truong, Huu; et al. (2018). "The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia". Science. 361 (6397): 88–92. Bibcode:2018Sci...361...88M. doi:10.1126/science.aat3628. PMID 29976827.
  82. Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history
  83. Investigating the Prehistory of Tungusic Peoples of Siberia and the Amur-Ussuri Region with Complete mtDNA Genome Sequences and Y-chromosomal Markers
  84. Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten E.; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid Ní; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (2020-08-25). "Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations". Communications Biology. 3 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1038/s42003-020-01162-2. ISSN 2399-3642.
  85. Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten E.; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid Ní; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (2020-08-25). "Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations". Communications Biology. 3 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1038/s42003-020-01162-2. ISSN 2399-3642.
  86. Late Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan - Hideaki Kanzawa-Kiriyama, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science 2018/2019en
  87. History, Laura Geggel 2019-05-22T13:04:40Z. "Freckled Woman with High Alcohol Tolerance Lived in Japan 3,800 Years Ago". livescience.com. Retrieved 2019-08-14.
  88. "DNA study: Jomon woman could tolerate fatty foods, booze：The Asahi Shimbun". The Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved 2019-05-14.
  89. "Genome info used to reconstruct face of Jomon Period woman from about 3,800 years ago". Mainichi Daily News. 2018-03-18. Retrieved 2019-08-13.
  90. Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN 2513-843X.
  91. Yang, Melinda A.; Fan, Xuechun; Sun, Bo; Chen, Chungyu; Lang, Jianfeng; Ko, Ying-Chin; Tsang, Cheng-hwa; Chiu, Hunglin; Wang, Tianyi; Bao, Qingchuan; Wu, Xiaohong (2020-07-17). "Ancient DNA indicates human population shifts and admixture in northern and southern China". Science. 369 (6501): 282–288. doi:10.1126/science.aba0909. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32409524.
  92. "Secrets of Jomon — the prehistoric Japanese art that inspired 'Zelda: Breath of the Wild'". Mic. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  93. "Go Jomon! Experience Japan's Prehistoric Era | Unique Nagano [Unique Nagano]". www.unique-nagano.com. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.