Jewish mysticism
Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941), distinguishes between different forms of mysticism across different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th-century Europe, is the most well known, but not the only typologic form, or the earliest to emerge. Among previous forms were Merkabah mysticism (c. 100 BC – 1000 AD), and Ashkenazi Hasidim (early 13th century AD) around the time of Kabbalistic emergence.
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Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term previously used in other Judaic contexts, but which the Medieval Kabbalists adopted for their own doctrine to express the belief that they were not innovating, but merely revealing the ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. This issue is crystallised until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalah. Traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from Medieval times, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mystical tradition, as well as other philosophical elements.
The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself developed through two historical forms: "Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah" (c.1175 – 1492 – 1570), and Lurianic Kabbalah (1569 AD – today) which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah into its wider system and became the basis for modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism: antinomian-heretical Sabbatean movements (1666 – 18th century AD), and Hasidic Judaism (1734 AD – today). In contemporary Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish mysticism followed are esoteric Lurianic Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the variety of schools in Hasidic Judaism, and Neo-Hasidism (incorporating Neo-Kabbalah) in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations.
Two non-Jewish syncretic traditions also popularised Judaic Kabbalah through its incorporation as part of general Western esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: theological Christian Cabala (c. 15th – 18th century) which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to Christian belief, and its diverging occultist offshoot Hermetic Qabalah (c. 15th century – today) which became a main element in esoteric and magical societies and teachings. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, and different in nature and aims from Judaic mysticism, they are not listed on this page.
Three aims
The Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself divides into three general streams: the Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah (seeking to understand and describe the divine realm), the Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah (seeking to achieve a mystical union with God), and the Practical/Magical Kabbalah (seeking to theurgically alter the divine realms and the World). These three different, but inter-relating, methods or aims of mystical involvement are also found throughout the other pre-Kabbalistic and post-Kabbalistic stages in Jewish mystical development, as three general typologies. As in Kabbalah, the same text can contain aspects of all three approaches, though the three streams often distill into three separate literatures under the influence of particular exponents or eras.
Within Kabbalah, the theosophical tradition is distinguished from many forms of mysticism in other religions by its doctrinal form as a mystical "philosophy" of Gnosis esoteric knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with usual traditions of general mysticism; to unite the individual intuitively with God. The tradition of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism, censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish Kabbalists, has similarities with non-Jewish Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism. However, as understood by Jewish Kabbalists, it is censored and forgotten in contemporary times because without the requisite purity and holy motive, it would degenerate into impure and forbidden magic. Consequently, it has formed a minor tradition in Jewish mystical history.
Historical forms
| Historical phase[1] | Dates | Influential developments and texts |
|---|---|---|
| Early Israelite traditional origins | 2nd millennium - 800 BCE | Prophetic meditation mystical elements in traditional prehistory and early Bible depiction encounters with the divine:.jpg.webp){kind=small} Hebrew Patriarchs and Matriarchs Covenant of the pieces Jacob's Ladder Jacob wrestling with the angel Moses Burning bush Theophany at Sinai Yahwism Early Israelite monarchic and cult prophets: Elijah's ascension |
| Prophetic Judaism[2] | 800–5th century BCE | Prophetic meditation, divine encounter, heavenly host throne of God visions, mystical elements, in the literary Prophetic books of the Bible, from the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Babylonian captivity and Return to Zion: Isaiah Ezekiel Zechariah |
| Apocalyptic Judaism | Beginning 5th century BCE 300–100 BCE Continuing to 1st century CE | Mystical and apocalyptic speculation, heavenly angelology and eschatology, in Second Temple Judaism under foreign rule and oppression, after the social institution era of prophecy closed:[3] Daniel 1 Enoch Biblical apocrypha-pseudepigrapha |
| Mystical elements in Second Temple period sects | c. 200 BCE-c. 100 CE | Mystical and pious elements among sects in the late Second Temple period in Judea and the Diaspora: Hasideans Essenes Philo's Platonic philosophy influence on early Christianity Christian Jewish early Christian mysticism |
| Early Rabbinic mysticism and mystical elements in classic Rabbinic literature[4] | c. 1–200 CE influence to 5th century CE | References in exoteric Talmud and Midrash to Tannaic early Rabbinic mystical circles, Maaseh Merkabah – Work of the Chariot exegesis and ascent, Maaseh Bereshit – Work of Creation exegesis. Wider continuing mystical elements in aggadah Rabbinic theology and narratives: Johanan ben Zakai and his disciples Rabbi Akiva (Simeon bar Yochai traditional/pseudepigraphical attribution of later Kabbalist Zohar) Mystical aggadot examples: Four who entered the Pardes Oven of Akhnai Bath ḳōl Torah: black fire on white fire, God looked in Torah to create World Shekhinah accompanies Israel in exile The Messiah at the Gates of Rome |
| Merkabah-Hekhalot esoteric texts and methods | c. 2nd century-1000 | Traditional/pseudepigraphical/anonymous esoteric Merkabah mysticism Throne and Hekhalot Palaces ascent literature and methods. Text protagonists are early Tannaic Rabbis, though texts academically dated variously from Talmudic 100–500 to Gaonic 400–800 periods, and sectarian/rabbinic origins debated: Earlier texts: 3 Enoch Hekhalot Rabbati (The Greater Palaces) Hekhalot Zutari (The Lesser Palaces) Merkavah Rabbah (The Great Chariot) Later texts: Shi'ur Qomah (Divine Dimensions)  Mystical speculations of the Geonim |
| Practical Kabbalah white magic | c. early CE-early modernity | Jewish use of white magic for theurgy by elite mystics, drawing from practices that developed from Talmudic period to early modernity: Magical elements in Merkabah mysticism ascents Use of Sefer Yetzirah for magic Sefer Raziel HaMalakh Golem Amulets Joseph della Reina 1400s attempt to hasten the messiah 16th-19th century European Baal Shem |
| Proto-Kabbalistic | 200–600 | Maaseh Bereshit – Creation speculation text. Describes 10 sephirot, though without their significance to later Kabbalah. Received rationalist interpretations before becoming a source text for Kabbalah: Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Formation) |
| Mystical elements in Medieval Jewish philosophy | 11th–13th centuries | Mystical elements in the thought of Medieval rationalist and anti-rationalist Jewish philosophical theologians: Solomon ibn Gabirol Jewish Neoplatonism Judah Halevi anti-rationalism[5] Moses Maimonides Neoplatonised Aristotelianism[6] |
| Jewish Sufi piety | 11th to 15th centuries | Jewish piety, including meditative experiential elements: Bahya ibn Paquda 11th century – Chovot HaLevavot (Duties of the Heart) Abraham Maimonides and the "Jewish Sufis" of Cairo 13th–15th century |
| Early Kabbalah | c. 1174–1200 | Emergence of Kabbalistic mystical theosophy among Hachmei Provence in Southern France. The Bahir, regarded in academia as the first Kabbalistic work, incorporates an earlier source text: Sefer HaBahir (Book of Brightness) Abraham ben David of Posquières (The Raavad) critic of Maimonides Isaac the Blind "Iyyun" and "Unique Cherub" mystical circles of unknown provenance |
| Chassidei Ashkenaz | c. 1150–1250 | Mystical-ethical piety and speculative theory in Ashkenaz-Germany. Shaped by Merkabah-Hekhalot texts, Practical Kabbalah magical elements, Rhineland Crusader persecutions and German monastic values: Samuel of Speyer Judah of Regensburg – Sefer Hasidim (Book of the Pious) Eleazar of Worms |
| Medieval Kabbalah development | c. 1200–1492 | Alternative philosophical vs. mythological interpretations of Theosophical Kabbalah: "Neoplatonic" quasi-philosophical hierarchy, and Jewish-"Gnostic" mythological interest in the demonic motifs. Centred in Spain's Kabbalistic golden age:.jpg.webp){kind=small} Early 13th century Girona neoplatonic school: Azriel of Gerona Nahmanides (Ramban) – Torah commentary 13th century Castile gnostic school: Treatise on the Left Emanation  The Zohar in Spain from c.1286: Zohar literature (Book of Splendour) late 1200s-1400s. Castile's gnostic culmination. Subsequent Zohar exegesis dominated other Medieval Kabbalah traditions. Possible Kabbalists in the Zohar circle:[7] Moses de León Todros ben Joseph Abulafia and others Kabbalistic scholarship: Joseph Gikatilla – Shaarei Orah (Gates of Light) c.1290 Spain Sefer HaTemunah (Book of the Figure) 13th–14th century influential doctrine in Kabbalah of Cosmic Cycles, later rejected by Cordovero and Luria[8] Bahya ben Asher Torah commentary |
| Medieval Ecstatic Kabbalah | 13th – 16th centuries | Medieval Meditative Kabbalah developed its own traditions.[9] Abraham Abulafia's meditative system of Ecstatic-Prophetic Kabbalah, his Maimonidean alternative competitor to Theosophical Kabbalah, embodies the non-Zoharic ecstatic stream in Spanish Kabbalism: Abulafian Prophetic Kabbalah school: Abraham Abulafia Mediterranean area late 13th century Judah Albotini Jerusalem 15th–16th century Other meditative methods: Isaac of Acco 14th century Joseph Tzayach Damascus and Jerusalem 16th century |
| Post-1492 and Safed Kabbalah | 16th century | Transition from esoteric Medieval Kabbalism to Kabbalah as a national messianic doctrine, after 1492 Expulsion from Spain exile. Jewish renaissance of Palestine: Joseph Taitazak Salonica Solomon Molcho Jewish Messiah claimant Meir ibn Gabbai 16th century early systemiser  Safed-Galilee Kabbalists: Joseph Karo legalist and mystic Shlomo Alkabetz Moses Cordovero (Ramak) – Pardes Rimonim. Cordoverian systemisation of Medieval Kabbalah until 1570 Isaac Luria (the Ari) – new post-Medieval Lurianic systemisation taught 1570–1572 Hayim Vital main Lurianic compiler and other writings Safed Meditative Kabbalah: Vital – Shaarei Kedusha (Gates of Holiness), Luria – Yichudim method |
| Maharal's mystical theology | 16th century | Medieval Kabbalah expressed in non-Kabbalistic philosophical theology: Judah Loew (Maharal) Prague |
| Early Lurianic and post-medieval Kabbalism | 16th-mid-18th centuries | Esoteric Lurianism, the second of Kabbalah's two systems of theosophy after Medieval-Cordoverian, incorporating dynamic myth of exile and redemption in divinity taught by Isaac Luria 1570–72. Other post-medieval popularising/ethical Kabbalah based itself on the more exoteric system of Moses Cordovero: Disciples compile Kitvei Ari Lurianic thought: Hayim Vital – Etz Hayim (Tree of Life) Israel Sarug spread Lurianism in Europe Lurianic exegesis and meditative methods dominated other post-medieval Kabbalah trends Popularising Kabbalistic Musar and homiletic literature 1550s–1750s: Moses Cordovero – Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah) Eliyahu de Vidas – Reshit Chochmah (Beginning of Wisdom) Kav ha-Yashar Isaiah Horowitz (Shelah) – Shnei Luchot HaBrit (Tablets of the Covenant) Central Europe  Kabbalistic renewal and scholarship: Abraham Azulai Chaim ibn Attar (Or ha-Hayim) Torah commentary Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (Ramchal) Italian early 18th century mystical-messianic circle, new public dissemination and revelation of Kabbalah Joseph Ergas |
| Sabbatean movements | 1665 – c. 19th century | Kabbalistic messianic-mystical heresies developing antinomian new theologies from Zoharic and Lurianic Kabbalah. Theological spectrum from mild to strong: Sabbateans: Sabbatai Zevi messianic claimant Islamic convert Nathan of Gaza Sabbatean prophet Moderate-crypto and radical-antinomian factions Emden-Eybeschutz controversy and Rabbinic excommunication of Sabbateans Frankism: Jacob Frank messianic claimant pseudo-Christian convert, late 18th century nihilism |
| Early and formative Hasidic Judaism | 1730s–1850s | Eastern European mystical revival movement, popularising and psychologising Kabbalah through Panentheism and the Tzadik mystical leader. Neutralised messianic danger expressed in Sabbateanism: Pre-Hasidic origins: Baal Shem Eastern Europe Practical Kabbalists Tzadikim Nistarim mythology Early Hasidism: Israel ben Eliezer (Baal Shem Tov, Besht) founder of Hasidism Dov Ber of Mezeritch (The Magid) systemiser and architect of Hasidism Jacob Joseph of Polonne Levi Yitzhak of Berditchev  Main Hasidic schools of thought (mystics after 1850s shown later): Mainstream Hasidic Tzadikism: Elimelech of Lizhensk – Noam Elimelech (Pleasantness of Elimelech) Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin (The Chozeh) Chabad intellectual Hasidism – Russia: Shneur Zalman of Liadi – Tanya (Likutei Amarim-Collected Words) theorist of Hasidism[10] Aaron of Staroselye Breslav imaginative Hasidism – Ukraine: Nachman of Breslav – Likutei Moharan (Collected teachings) Nathan of Breslav Peshischa-Kotzk introspective Hasidism – Poland, mystical offshoot from: Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica – Mei Hashiloach (Waters of Shiloah), personal illumination  Hasidic storytelling: Shivchei HaBesht (Praises of the Besht) published 1814 Sippurei Ma'asiyot (Stories that were told) Nachman of Breslav's 13 mystical tales 1816 |
| Later traditional Lurianic Kabbalah | 18th century-today | Traditionalist esoteric interpretations and practice of Lurianic Kabbalah from 18th century until today, apart from Hasidic adaptions: Brody Kloiz and pre-Hasidic introverted Hasidim kabbalistic circles in Eastern Europe. Renewed esotericism in response to Sabbatean heresy  Mitnagdic-Lithuanian non-Hasidic Kabbalah: Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (Vilna Gaon, Gra) figurehead of Mitnagdim 18th century Chaim of Volozhin – Nefesh HaChaim (Soul of Life) theorist of Mitnagdism,[10] founder of Yeshiva movement Shlomo Elyashiv Influence of Hasidism on later Lithuanian Musar-ethics of Eliyahu Dessler  Mizrahi-Sephardi Oriental Kabbalah: Shalom Sharabi 18th century (from Yemen) and Beit El Synagogue (Jerusalem) introverted esotericism response to Sabbateanism. Lurianic exposition and elite meditation circle Chaim Yosef David Azulai (Hida) 18th century Yosef Hayyim (Ben Ish Chai) 19th century Hakham Baghdad Abuhatzeira Moroccan Kabbalist dynasty Mordechai Sharabi Yitzhak Kaduri 20th century Ashkenazi European Kabbalah (apart from Hasidic thought): Shaar Hashamayim Yeshiva (Jerusalem) Yehuda Ashlag 20th century Israel – HaSulam (The Ladder) Lurianic Zohar |
| Later Hasidic Judaism | 1850s-today | Dynastic succession and modernising society turned Hasidism away from pre-1810s mystical revivalism, to post-1850s consolidation and rabbinic conservatism. Mystical focus continued in some schools: Yitzchak Eisik Safrin of Komarno visionary mystic Chabad-Lubavitch – intellectual Hasidism communication Zadok HaKohen late 19th century Izbica school Aharon Roth early 20th century Jerusalem piety Kalonymus Kalman Shapira response to Holocaust Menachem Mendel Schneerson (Lubavitch Rebbe) Hasidic outreach and 1990s messianism Breslav contemporary mystical revivalism |
| Neo-Hasidism and Neo-Kabbalah | c. 20th century-today | Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations' adapted spiritual teaching of Kabbalistic and Hasidic theology to modernist thought and interpretations: Early 20th century: Martin Buber existential Neo-Hasidism Post War and contemporary: Abraham Joshua Heschel Neo-traditional aggadic Judaism Zalman Schachter-Shalomi Jewish Renewal Arthur Green academic and theologian Lawrence Kushner Reform Neo-Kabbalah Influence on modern and postmodern Jewish philosophy: Jewish existentialism Postmodern Jewish philosophy[11] Independent scholarship: Sanford Drob – The New Kabbalah[12] Zevi Slavin – Seekers of Unity[13] |
| Zionist mysticism | c. 1910s-today | Teachings and influence of Rav Kook poetic mystic. Unity of religion and secularism, halakha and aggadah, activism and quietism: Abraham Isaac Kook Chief Rabbi Mandate Palestine Atchalta De'Geulah religious Zionism |
| Academic study of Jewish mysticism | c. 1920s-today | Critical-historical study of Jewish mystical texts began in 19th century, but Gershom Scholem's school in the mid-20th century founded the methodological disciple in academia, returning mysticism to a central position in Jewish historiography and Jewish studies departments. Select historian examples: First generation: Gershom Scholem discipline founder Hebrew University Alexander Altmann American initiator Present generation, multi-disciplinary approaches: Moshe Idel Hebrew University revisionism Elliot R. Wolfson feminist contributions |
See also
Notes
- Structure of the table based on an expanded version of the table in Kabbalistic Metaphors: Jewish Mystical Themes in Ancient and Modern Thought, Sanford L. Drob, Jason Aronson, 2000; "The Historical Context" p.2-4
- There is academic debate whether Prophetic Judaism is phenomenologically a mysticism. While the prophets differed from many (not Hasidic) Jewish mystics in their social role, there are mystical passages in the prophetic books; eg. Ezekiel 1 became the basis of Merkabah mysticism. The Talmud says that there were hundreds of thousands of prophets among Israel: twice as many as the 600,000 Israelites who left Egypt; but most conveyed messages solely for their own generation, so were not reported in scripture (Judaism 101-Prophets and Prophecy). Scripture identifies only 55 prophets of Israel. In Meditation and the Bible, Aryeh Kaplan reconstructs meditative-mystical methods of the Jewish prophetic schools.
- Kabbalah - A Guide for the Perplexed, Pinchas Giller, Continuum 2011, p 11-12, 14: Mysticism that later evolved into Kabbalah began when prophecy ended. The activities of the prophets and their followers did not cease with the last "accredited" Hebrew prophets, Hagai, Zecharia and Malachi. Their students didn't know their masters would be remembered as prophets, while they wouldn't. Prophetic activity continued. Their students did their thing, which probably consisted of meditation, speculation over the political fate of the Jews and mystical visions of God and the heavenly host. They got their ideas from their new access to the Bible, which had been organised in the Babylonian exile by Ezra the Scribe, who, in order to save Judaism, popularly replaced the Temple cult with a sacred book cult. Jews began to be scattered, but besides yearning for Israel and the Temple, they channelled their spiritual urges into mystical speculation and esoteric exegesis of scripture. This "unaccredited" prophetic activity evolved into the Merkabah and Bereishit mysticism of the Talmudic era rabbis
- There is academic debate about how the mystical references in early exoteric Rabbinic literature relate to, or the degree it can be identified with, the mysticism and methods of subsequent esoteric Merkabah-Hekhalot texts.
- Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism, Menachem Kellner, Littman Library: describes Judah Halevi as "Proto-Kabbalistic" in his conception of prophecy and Jewish chosenness in the Kuzari
- While Menachem Kellner reads Maimonides as anti-"Proto-Kabbalah" (Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism, Littman Library), David R. Blumenthal (Philosophic Mysticism and anthologies) reads Maimonides as a rationalist mystic: "The thesis of the book is that medieval philosophers had a type of religious mysticism that was rooted in, yet grew out of, their rationalist thinking. The religious experience of "philosophic mysticism" was the result of this intellectualist and post-intellectualist effort." ()
- Kabbalah - A Guide for the Perplexed, Pinchas Giller, Continuum 2011, p 27-30: The Zohar "book" remained a snowballing collection of multiple materials during its development, including later strata Tiqqunei ha-Zohar and Ra'aya Meheimna. The process of collecting and editing texts continued to the late 1500s. Scholem's attribution of the main body of the Zohar to single authorship of Moses de Leon dominated 20th century scholarship. However, recent scholarship of Yehudah Liebes, Ronit Meroz and others, has served to blur the identity of the Zohar as a single composition. A collective view has emerged attributing the Zohar to a series of authors over a century and a half in Spain, and possibly including some ancient materials. If the Zohar did emerge from de Leon's study, his role was at best ancillary, recording notes of a Kabbalist circle that remains mysterious, possibly including Todros Abulafia or his son Yosef, Yosef of Hamadan, Yosef Gikatilla, Yosef Angelet and others, arguably stronger and more influential than de Leon
- The shemitot and the age of the universe, 3 part video class from inner.org
- Traditionalist historiography Meditation and Kabbalah, Aryeh Kaplan, Samuel Weiser publishers; overview of the Meditative schools in Kabbalah. Some medieval Meditative Kabbalists also followed the Theosophical Kabbalah, though not its greatest exponent Abulafia in his esoteric system. In turn, the 16th century Safed culmination of theosophy by Cordovero, Luria and Vital dominated and subsumed the previous divergent Kabbalistic streams into their teachings, drawing from the earlier schools. After Luria, Meditative Kabbalah followed his new system of Yichudim. In Kabbalah: New Perspectives, Yale University Press 1988, chapter 5 Mystical Techniques, Moshe Idel reinstates the meditative and experiential dimensions of Kabbalah as an inherent companion to the theosophical in academic historiography. Kabbalists often attributed their theosophical doctrines to new meditative revelations.
- Torah Lishmah-Torah for Torah's Sake, Norman Lamm, Ktav 1989; summarised in Faith and Doubt, Norman Lamm, chapter "Monism for Moderns". Identifies Chaim of Volozhin as the main kabbalistic-theological theorist of Mitnagdism, and Schneur Zalman of Liadi as the main theorist of Hasidism, based on interpretation of Lurianic Tzimtzum. For Chaim Volozhin, Divine immanence is monistic (the acosmic way God looks at the world, reserved for man only in elite kabbalistic prayer) and Divine transcendence is pluralistic (man relates to God through pluralistic Jewish law), leading to Mitnagdic transcendent Theism and popular ideological Talmudic study focus. For Shneur Zalman, Immanence is pluralistic (man relates to mystical Divine immanence in pluralist Nature) and Transcendence is monistic (Habad Hasidic meditation on acosmic nullification of world from God's perspective), leading to Hasidic Panentheism and popular mysticism Deveikut fervour amidst materiality
- Reasoning After Revelation: Dialogues in Postmodern Jewish Philosophy, Steven Kepnes – Peter Ochs – Robert Gibbs, Westview Press 2000. "Postmodern Jewish thinkers understand their Jewishness differently, but they all share a fidelity to what they call the Torah and to communal practices of reading and social action that have their bases in rabbinic interpretations of biblical narrative, law, and belief. Thus, postmodern Jewish thinking is thinking about God, Jews, and the world—with the texts of the Torah—in the company of fellow seekers and believers. It utilizes the tools of philosophy, but without their modern premises." Commentaries in later chapters describe the contribution of Kabbalistic mythological thinking to this project.
- newkabbalah.com
- seekersofunity.com
References
- Heschel, Abraham Joshua Heavenly Torah: As Refracted through the Generations, edited and translated by Gordon Tucker, Bloomsbury Academic 2006
- Jacobs, Louis Jewish Mystical Testimonies, Schocken
- Kaplan, Aryeh Meditation and the Bible, Red Wheel/Weiser 1978
- Scholem, Gershom Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, Schocken, first pub.1941
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jewish mysticism. |
- Don Karr's Bibliographic Surveys of contemporary academic scholarship on all periods of Jewish mysticism
- Abraham Joshua Heschel's view of Rabbinic Judaism as aggadah and mystical experience
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