List of African-American sports firsts

African Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is "breaking the color barrier".[1][2]

The world of sports generally is invoked in the frequently cited example of Jackie Robinson, who became the first African American of the modern era to become a Major League Baseball player in 1947, ending 60 years of segregated Negro leagues.[3]

19th century

1879

First African American to play major league baseball: Possibly William Edward White; he played as a substitute in one professional baseball game for the Providence Grays of the National League, on June 21, 1879.[4] Work by the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) suggests that he may have been the first African-American to play major league baseball, predating the longer careers of Moses Fleetwood Walker and his brother Weldy Walker by five years; and Jackie Robinson by 68 years.[5][6][7][8][9]

1884

First African American to play professional baseball at the major-league level: Possibly Moses Fleetwood Walker, but see also William Edward White in 1879.[10]

1899

First African American to win a gold medal at the Track Cycling World Championships: Major Taylor (Sprint). This also made him the first African American to achieve world championship in any sport.[11]

20th century

1902

First African American professional basketball player: Harry Lew (New England Professional Basketball League)[12] (See also: 1950)
First African American boxing champion: Joe Gans, a lightweight

1904

First African American to participate in the Olympic Games, and first to win a medal: George Poage (two bronze medals)[13]

1908

First African American heavyweight boxing champion: Jack Johnson[14]
First African American Olympic gold medal winner: John Taylor (track and field medley relay team).[15] (See also: DeHart Hubbard, 1924)

1916

First African American football player to play in a Rose Bowl game: Fritz Pollard, Brown University[16]

1917

First African American woman to win a major sports title: Lucy Diggs Slowe, American Tennis Association[17]

1920

First African American NFL football players: Fritz Pollard (Akron Pros) and Bobby Marshall (Rock Island Independents)[18]

1921

First African American NFL football coach: Fritz Pollard, co-head coach, Akron Pros, while continuing to play running back[18]

1924

First African American to win individual Olympic gold medal: DeHart Hubbard (Long jump, 1924 Summer Olympics).[19] (See also: John Taylor, 1908)

1929

First African American sportscaster: Sherman "Jocko" Maxwell (WNJR, Newark, New Jersey)[20]

1946

First African American to sign a contract with an NFL team in the modern (post-World War II) era: Kenny Washington

1947

First African American Major League Baseball player of the modern era: Jackie Robinson (Brooklyn Dodgers).[21] (See also: Moses Fleetwood Walker, 1884)
First African American consensus college All-American basketball player: Don Barksdale[22]

1948

First African American woman to win an Olympic gold medal: Alice Coachman[23]
First African American on an Olympic basketball team and first African-American Olympic gold medal basketball winner: Don Barksdale, in the 1948 Summer Olympics
First African American to design and construct a professional golf course: Bill Powell

1949

First African American to win an MVP award in Major League Baseball: Jackie Robinson (Brooklyn Dodgers, National League)[24] (See also: Elston Howard, 1963)

1950

First African American woman to compete on the world tennis tour: Althea Gibson[25]
First African American NBA basketball players: Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton (New York Knicks), Chuck Cooper (Boston Celtics), and Earl Lloyd (Washington Capitols).[26] Note: Harold Hunter was the first to sign an NBA contract, signing with the Washington Capitols on April 26, 1950.[27][28] However, he was cut from the team during training camp and did not play professionally.[29][Note 1] (See also: 1902)

1951

First African American named to the College Football Hall of Fame: Duke Slater, University of Iowa (1918–1921)[30]
First African American quarterback to become a regular starter for a professional football team: Bernie Custis (Hamilton Tiger-Cats) [31]

1953

First African American basketball player to play in the NBA All-Star Game: Don Barksdale in the 1953 NBA All-Star Game[22]
First African American quarterback to play in the National Football League during the modern (post-World War II) era: Willie Thrower (Chicago Bears)[32]

1956

First African American to break the color barrier in a bowl game in the Deep South: Bobby Grier, (Pittsburgh Panthers in the 1956 Sugar Bowl)[33]
First African American Wimbledon tennis champion: Althea Gibson (doubles, with Englishwoman Angela Buxton); also first African American to win a Grand Slam event (French Open).[34] (See also: Arthur Ashe, 1968; Serena Williams, 2003)
First African American to win the Cy Young Award as the top pitcher in Major League Baseball, in the award's inaugural year: Don Newcombe (Brooklyn Dodgers)[35]

1957

First African American NFL assistant coach (receivers coach) of the modern era: Lowell Perry (Pittsburgh Steelers)[36][37] (See also: 1966)

1961

First African American to win the Heisman Trophy: Ernie Davis
First African American to join the PGA Tour: Charlie Sifford [38]

1962

First African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame: Jackie Robinson (See also: Satchel Paige, 1971)
First African-American coach in Major League Baseball: John Jordan "Buck" O'Neil (Chicago Cubs)

1963

First African American to be named American League MVP: Elston Howard (New York Yankees) (See also: Jackie Robinson, 1949)
First African Americans inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame: New York Renaissance, inducted as a team. (See also: Bob Douglas, 1972; Bill Russell, 1975; Clarence Gaines, 1982)
First African American to win a NASCAR Grand National event: Wendell Scott. See also 2015.

1964

First African-American baseball player to be named the Major League Baseball World Series MVP: Bob Gibson, St. Louis Cardinals[39]
First African-American to join the Ladies Professional Golf Association: Althea Gibson

1966

First African-American coach in the National Basketball Association: Bill Russell (Boston Celtics)
First African-American Major League Baseball umpire: Emmett Ashford
First African-American NFL broadcaster: Lowell Perry (CBS, on Pittsburgh Steelers games)[36][37] (See also: 1957)
First team with 5 African American starters to win the NCAA Basketball Tournament: 1965–66 Texas Western Miners basketball team

1967

First African American to win a PGA Tour event: Charlie Sifford (1967 Greater Hartford Open Invitational)
First African American to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Emlen Tunnell

1968

First African-American man to win a Grand Slam tennis event: Arthur Ashe (US Open) (See also: Althea Gibson, 1956; Serena Williams, 2003)
First African American to start at quarterback in the modern era of professional football: Marlin Briscoe (Denver Broncos, AFL)
First African-American coach to win NBA Championship: Bill Russell

1970

First African-American basketball player to win the NBA All Star MVP, the NBA Finals MVP, and the NBA MVP all in the same season: Willis Reed (New York Knicks)
First African-American NCAA Division I basketball coach: Will Robinson (Illinois State University)[Note 2]
First African American to initiate the concept of free agency. He refused to accept a trade following the 1969 season, ultimately appealing his case to the U.S. Supreme Court. The trend of free agency expanded across the entire landscape of professional sports for all races and all cultures: Curt Flood (St. Louis Cardinals)[Note 3]

1972

First African-American National Basketball Association general manager: Wayne Embry
First African American inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame: Team-owner and coach Bob Douglas, in the category of "contributor" (See also: New York Renaissance, 1963; player Bill Russell, 1975; coach Clarence Gaines, 1982)

1975

First African American inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame as a player: Bill Russell (See also: Harlem Renaissance, 1963; Bob Douglas, 1972; Clarence Gaines, 1982)
First African-American manager in Major League Baseball: Frank Robinson (Cleveland Indians)
First African American to play in a men's major golf championship: Lee Elder (The Masters)
First African American to be named Super Bowl MVP in NFL: Franco Harris (Pittsburgh Steelers). Of mixed heritage, Harris was also first Italian American to win the award.

1977

First African-American Major League Baseball general manager: Bill Lucas (Atlanta Braves)

1979

First African-American head football coach in Division I-A: Willie Jeffries (Wichita State)

1981

First African American to play in the NHL: Val James (Buffalo Sabres)[Note 4]

1982

First African American inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach: Clarence Gaines (See also: New York Renaissance, 1963; Bob Douglas, 1972; Bill Russell, 1975)

1984

First African-American coach to win the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship: John Thompson (Georgetown)

1986

First African-American Formula One racecar driver: Willy T. Ribbs[Note 5] (See also: Ribbs, 1991)

1987

First African American man to sail around the world solo: Teddy Seymour (See also: 1992)

1988

First African-American NFL referee: Johnny Grier
First African American to win a medal at the Winter Olympics (a bronze in figure skating): Debi Thomas
First African-American quarterback to start (and win) in the Super Bowl: Doug Williams

1989

First African-American NFL head coach of the modern era: Art Shell, Los Angeles Raiders[40]

1991

First African American to qualify for the Indianapolis 500 auto race: Willy T. Ribbs (See also: Ribbs, 1986)
First African-American NBA Coach of the Year: Don Chaney (Houston Rockets)

1992

First African-American Major League Baseball manager to reach (and win) the World Series: Cito Gaston (Toronto Blue Jays) 1992 World Series
First African American to sail solo around the world following the Age of Sail route around the southern tips of South America (Cape Horn) and Africa (Cape of Good Hope), avoiding the Panama and Suez Canals: Bill Pinkney[41] (See also: 1987)

1993

First African-American to serve as home plate umpire for World Series game: Charlie Williams for Game 4 of the 1993 World Series

1998

First African American to play in the Presidents Cup: Tiger Woods[Note 6]

21st century

2002

First African-American Winter Olympic gold medal winner: Vonetta Flowers (two-woman bobsleigh). (See also: Shani Davis, 2006)
First African American to become majority owner of a U.S. major sports league team: Robert L. Johnson (Charlotte Bobcats, NBA)[Note 7] (see also 2001)
First African American to hold the #1 rank in tennis: Venus Williams
First African American to hold the year-end #1 rank in tennis: Serena Williams
First African American to be named year-end world champion by the International Tennis Federation: Serena Williams
First African-American Arena Football League head coach to win ArenaBowl: Darren Arbet (San Jose SaberCats), ArenaBowl XVI
First African-American general manager in the National Football League: Ozzie Newsome (Baltimore Ravens)

2003

First African American to win a Career Grand Slam in tennis: Serena Williams (See also: Althea Gibson, 1956; Arthur Ashe, 1968)

2004

First African-American NBA general manager to win the NBA Finals: Joe Dumars (Detroit Pistons), 2004 NBA Finals
First African-American Canadian Football League head coach to reach (and win) the Grey Cup: Pinball Clemons (Toronto Argonauts), 92nd Grey Cup
First African-American inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame: Charlie Sifford
First African-American to play for USA Softball during the Olympics: Natasha Watley

2006

First African-American individual Winter Olympic gold medal winner: Shani Davis (men's 1,000 meter speed skating) (See also: Vonetta Flowers, 2002)

2007

First African-American NFL head coaches to reach the Super Bowl: Lovie Smith and Tony Dungy, Super Bowl XLI[Note 8]
First African-American NFL head coach to win the Super Bowl: Tony Dungy (Indianapolis Colts), Super Bowl XLI

2008

First African American to referee a Super Bowl game: Mike Carey (Super Bowl XLII)
First African-American NFL general manager to win the Super Bowl: Jerry Reese (New York Giants), Super Bowl XLII

2009

First African-American doubles team to be named year-end world champion by the International Tennis Federation: Serena and Venus Williams

2010

First African-American to win the Stanley Cup: Dustin Byfuglien with the Chicago Blackhawks[42]

2012

First African-American gymnast to win the women's artistic individual all-around at the Olympic Games: Gabby Douglas

2013

First African American gymnast to win the women's artistic individual all-around at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships: Simone Biles

2014

First African-American player named to the USA Curtis Cup Team: Mariah Stackhouse[43][44]

2015

First African American to be inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame: Wendell Scott[45]
First African-American commissioner of a major North American sports league: Jeffrey Orridge, Canadian Football League[46]

2018

First African American to play for Team USA Hockey in the Olympic Games: Jordan Greenway

2020

First African-American NHL play-by-play broadcaster: Everett Fitzhugh with Seattle Kraken[47]
First African-American NHL Assistant General Manager: Brett Petersen with Florida Panthers[48]

Notes

Clifton was the first to sign an NBA contract and subsequently play, Cooper was the first to be drafted by an NBA team, and Lloyd was the first to play in an NBA regular-season game because his team's opening game was one day before the others.
At the time, the NCAA had not yet adopted its three-division system. Illinois State was in the NCAA University Division, which became Division I in 1973. The NCAA retroactively considers University Division members to have been Division I members.
Although Flood's legal challenge was unsuccessful, it brought about additional solidarity among players as they fought against baseball's reserve clause and sought free agency.
The NHL had fielded black players for more than 20 years, with the first being Willie O'Ree in 1958, but all previous black players were Black Canadians and not African Americans. In 1996, Mike Grier (Edmonton Oilers) became the first to have been both born and exclusively trained in the U.S., per Allen, Kevin (January 14, 2008). "Willie O'Ree still blazing way in NHL 50 years later". USA Today. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2014.
Lewis Hamilton became the first black Formula One racer in 2006, but he is a British citizen of Grenadan ancestry, and not an African American. Ribbs did not compete in a race, but drove a Formula One car professionally in January 1986 as a tester for the Brabham–BMW at Estoril, Portugal.
Woods' mixed ancestry — ¼ Chinese, ¼ Thai, ¼ African-American, ⅛ white, and ⅛ Native American — also makes him the first Asian American to achieve this feat. He is also the first of only four golfers of primarily non-European descent to win a men's major, with the others being Vijay Singh (an Indian Fijian), Michael Campbell (a Māori from New Zealand), and Y.E. Yang (South Korean).
Announced as Bobcats owner in December 2002, although team did not begin play until 2004.
Smith and Dungy both reached this milestone on the same day, although Smith was technically the first due solely to scheduling. The NFC and AFC Championship Games are always held on the same day. In the playoffs that followed the 2006 NFL season, the NFC game was played first.

References

Juguo, Zhang (2001). W. E. B. Du Bois: The Quest for the Abolition of the Color Line. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93087-1
Herbst, Philip H (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-877864-97-1
Sailes, Gary Alan (1998). "Jackie Robinson: Breaking the Color Barrier in Team Sports". African Americans in Sport: Contemporary Themes, Transaction Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7658-0440-2
William Edward White: Statistics and History Baseball-Reference
Husman, John. "June 21, 1879: The cameo of William Edward White". The Society for American Baseball Research.
Morris, Peter (February 5, 2015). ""Baseball's Secret Pioneer: William Edward White, the first black player in major-league history"". The Society for American Baseball Research/Slate.com.
Malinowski, Zachary (February 15, 2004). "Who was the first black man to play in the major leagues?". Providence Journal.
Siegel, Robert (January 30, 2004). "Black Baseball Pioneer William White's 1879 Game". National Public Radio.
Fatsis, Stefan (January 30, 2004). "Mystery of Baseball: Was William White Game's First Black?". The Wall Street Journal.
Gendin, Sidney (1999). "Moses Fleetwood Walker: Jackie Robinson's accidental predecessor". In Joseph Dorinson (ed.). Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream. Joram Warmund. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 22–29. ISBN 978-0-7656-3338-5.
Aaseng, Nathan (2003). "Taylor, Marshall Walker". African-American Athletes. Facts on File library of American history. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 218. ISBN 1438107781. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
Grasso, John (2010-11-15). "Lew, Harry Haskell "Bucky"". Historical Dictionary of Basketball. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810875063.
Conner, Floyd (31 October 2001). The Olympic's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of the Olympics' Gold Medal Gaffes, Improbable Triumphs, and Other Oddities. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-59797-397-7. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
Smith, Charles R. (22 June 2010). Black Jack: The Ballad of Jack Johnson. Roaring Brook Press. ISBN 978-1-59643-473-8. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
Potter 2002, p. 345–346.
Smith, Frederick D. (2009-01-01). "Pollard, Fritz". In Jessie Carney Smith; Linda T. Wynn (eds.). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 1578591929.
Miller, Carroll L.; Pruitt-Logan, Anne S. (2012). Faithful to the Task at Hand: The Life of Lucy Diggs Slowe. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4384-4260-0. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
Wilson, Joseph; David Addams (2006). "Football". In Paul Finkelman (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American history, 1619–1895. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 234–237. ISBN 0195167775.
"William Dehart Hubbard First Black to Win Gold in an Individual Event". Jet. 90 (10). 1996-07-22. pp. 60–61. ISSN 0021-5996.
Weber, Bruce (July 19, 2008). "Sherman L. Maxwell, 100, Sportscaster and Writer, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
Brown, Nikki L. M.; Stentiford, Barry M. (30 September 2008). The Jim Crow Encyclopedia: Greenwood Milestones in African American History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 693. ISBN 978-0-313-34181-6. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
Parks, Gregory; Bradley, Stefan M. (2002). Alpha Phi Alpha: A Legacy of Greatness, The Demands of Transcendence. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 361. ISBN 978-0-8131-3421-5. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
Smith 2002, p. 700.
Rosenberg, Aaron (2013). 42: The Jackie Robinson Story: The Movie Novel. Scholastic Inc. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-545-54113-8. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
Harris, Cecil (2007). Charging the net: a history of Blacks in tennis from Althea Gibson and Arthur Ashe to the Williams sisters. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 9781566637145.
"1950-51 Season Overview: NBA's Color Line is Broken". National Basketball Association. Archived from the original on March 20, 2015. Retrieved March 9, 2013.
Howell, Dave. "Six Who Paved the Way". National Basketball Association. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.
Wagner, Jeremy. "9. Firsts For African-Americans". ESPN. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.
McDowell, Sam (March 9, 2013). "Sumner grad Harold Hunter, first African-American to sign with NBA team, dies at 86". Kansas City Star. Kansas City, Missouri. Archived from the original on March 12, 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-30.
Smith 2003, p. 676.
"Meet Bernie Custis, football's first African-American quarterback". Toronto Star. Toronto. August 12, 2011. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
"Thrower was first black QB to play in NFL". Associated Press. ESPN Classic. February 22, 2002. Archived from the original on November 10, 2013. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
Thamel, Pete (January 1, 2006). "Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect". The New York Times. Retrieved April 10, 2011.
Company, Johnson Publishing (2003-10-13). "First Black Tennis Champion Althea Gibson Dies in East Orange, Nj, at 76". Jet. 104 (16). pp. 51–52. ISSN 0021-5996.
Lew Freedman (2007). "Don Newcombe". African American Pioneers of Baseball: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 99–108. ISBN 9780313338519.
Spears, Marc J. (2017-02-28). "Scott Perry honors his father's NFL legacy and aims to continue making history in the NBA". The Undefeated. Retrieved 2020-11-14.
maryrose (2008-08-25). "Remembering the Steelers Lowell Perry, the First African-American Coach in Modern NFL History". Behind the Steel Curtain. Retrieved 2020-11-14.
"A Pioneer's Tribute Is Both a Reward and a Reminder: Charlie Sifford Is Given the Presidential Medal of Freedom". The New York Times.
"Postseason World Series MVP Awards & All-Star Game MVP Award Winners". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015.
Freeman, Mike. "Art Shell Reflects on Becoming NFL's 1st Black Head Coach in Modern Era". Bleacher Report. Retrieved 2020-11-14.
Richman, Evan (June 10, 1992). "Sailor Makes Solo Voyage Around Globe". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
"Black Hockey Player Helps Chicago Win Stanley Cup". regalmag.com. Archived from the original on March 2, 2016. Retrieved February 19, 2016.
"Mariah Stackhouse – GoStanford.com – Stanford University". gostanford.com.
Beth Ann Nichols. "Stanford's Mariah Stackhouse keeps breaking barriers as Curtis Cup begins". Golfweek.com.
Pennell, Jay (January 2, 2015). "Remembering Wendell Scott's lone NASCAR win 51 years later". Fox Sports. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015.
Rush, Curtis (17 March 2015). "CFL names Jeffrey Orridge as new commissioner". Toronto Star. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
"Seattle Kraken hire NHL's first Black team broadcaster Everett Fitzhugh". RSN.
"Panthers: Peterson is NHL's first Black asst. GM". ESPN. November 17, 2020.

Bibliography

Potter, Joan (2002). African American Firsts: Famous Little-Known and Unsung Triumphs of Blacks ... Books.google.com. p. 141. ISBN 9780758202437. Retrieved 2016-04-28.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[30] Clifton was the first to sign an NBA contract and subsequently play, Cooper was the first to be drafted by an NBA team, and Lloyd was the first to play in an NBA regular-season game because his team's opening game was one day before the others.

[41] At the time, the NCAA had not yet adopted its three-division system. Illinois State was in the NCAA University Division, which became Division I in 1973. The NCAA retroactively considers University Division members to have been Division I members.

[42] Although Flood's legal challenge was unsuccessful, it brought about additional solidarity among players as they fought against baseball's reserve clause and sought free agency.

[43] The NHL had fielded black players for more than 20 years, with the first being Willie O'Ree in 1958, but all previous black players were Black Canadians and not African Americans. In 1996, Mike Grier (Edmonton Oilers) became the first to have been both born and exclusively trained in the U.S., per Allen, Kevin (January 14, 2008). "Willie O'Ree still blazing way in NHL 50 years later". USA Today. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2014.

[44] Lewis Hamilton became the first black Formula One racer in 2006, but he is a British citizen of Grenadan ancestry, and not an African American. Ribbs did not compete in a race, but drove a Formula One car professionally in January 1986 as a tester for the Brabham–BMW at Estoril, Portugal.

[Tiger-47] Woods' mixed ancestry — ¼ Chinese, ¼ Thai, ¼ African-American, ⅛ white, and ⅛ Native American — also makes him the first Asian American to achieve this feat. He is also the first of only four golfers of primarily non-European descent to win a men's major, with the others being Vijay Singh (an Indian Fijian), Michael Campbell (a Māori from New Zealand), and Y.E. Yang (South Korean).

[48] Announced as Bobcats owner in December 2002, although team did not begin play until 2004.

[49] Smith and Dungy both reached this milestone on the same day, although Smith was technically the first due solely to scheduling. The NFC and AFC Championship Games are always held on the same day. In the playoffs that followed the 2006 NFL season, the NFC game was played first.

[1] Juguo, Zhang (2001). W. E. B. Du Bois: The Quest for the Abolition of the Color Line. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93087-1

[2] Herbst, Philip H (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-877864-97-1

[3] Sailes, Gary Alan (1998). "Jackie Robinson: Breaking the Color Barrier in Team Sports". African Americans in Sport: Contemporary Themes, Transaction Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7658-0440-2

[4] William Edward White: Statistics and History Baseball-Reference

[5] Husman, John. "June 21, 1879: The cameo of William Edward White". The Society for American Baseball Research.

[6] Morris, Peter (February 5, 2015). ""Baseball's Secret Pioneer: William Edward White, the first black player in major-league history"". The Society for American Baseball Research/Slate.com.

[7] Malinowski, Zachary (February 15, 2004). "Who was the first black man to play in the major leagues?". Providence Journal.

[8] Siegel, Robert (January 30, 2004). "Black Baseball Pioneer William White's 1879 Game". National Public Radio.

[9] Fatsis, Stefan (January 30, 2004). "Mystery of Baseball: Was William White Game's First Black?". The Wall Street Journal.

[DorinsonWarmund1999-10] Gendin, Sidney (1999). "Moses Fleetwood Walker: Jackie Robinson's accidental predecessor". In Joseph Dorinson (ed.). Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream. Joram Warmund. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 22–29. ISBN 978-0-7656-3338-5.

[11] Aaseng, Nathan (2003). "Taylor, Marshall Walker". African-American Athletes. Facts on File library of American history. New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 218. ISBN 1438107781. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2015.

[lew2010-12] Grasso, John (2010-11-15). "Lew, Harry Haskell "Bucky"". Historical Dictionary of Basketball. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810875063.

[Conner2001-13] Conner, Floyd (31 October 2001). The Olympic's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of the Olympics' Gold Medal Gaffes, Improbable Triumphs, and Other Oddities. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-59797-397-7. Retrieved 1 June 2013.

[Jr.2010-14] Smith, Charles R. (22 June 2010). Black Jack: The Ballad of Jack Johnson. Roaring Brook Press. ISBN 978-1-59643-473-8. Retrieved 1 June 2013.

[FOOTNOTEPotter2002345–346-15] Potter 2002, p. 345–346.

[16] Smith, Frederick D. (2009-01-01). "Pollard, Fritz". In Jessie Carney Smith; Linda T. Wynn (eds.). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 1578591929.

[MillerPruitt-Logan2012-17] Miller, Carroll L.; Pruitt-Logan, Anne S. (2012). Faithful to the Task at Hand: The Life of Lucy Diggs Slowe. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4384-4260-0. Retrieved June 2, 2013.

[WilsonAddams2006-18] Wilson, Joseph; David Addams (2006). "Football". In Paul Finkelman (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American history, 1619–1895. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 234–237. ISBN 0195167775.

[19] "William Dehart Hubbard First Black to Win Gold in an Individual Event". Jet. 90 (10). 1996-07-22. pp. 60–61. ISSN 0021-5996.

[nyt-20] Weber, Bruce (July 19, 2008). "Sherman L. Maxwell, 100, Sportscaster and Writer, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2008.

[BrownStentiford2008-21] Brown, Nikki L. M.; Stentiford, Barry M. (30 September 2008). The Jim Crow Encyclopedia: Greenwood Milestones in African American History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 693. ISBN 978-0-313-34181-6. Retrieved 8 June 2013.

[ParksBradley2012-22] Parks, Gregory; Bradley, Stefan M. (2002). Alpha Phi Alpha: A Legacy of Greatness, The Demands of Transcendence. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 361. ISBN 978-0-8131-3421-5. Retrieved 8 June 2013.

[FOOTNOTESmith2002700-23] Smith 2002, p. 700.

[Rosenberg2013-24] Rosenberg, Aaron (2013). 42: The Jackie Robinson Story: The Movie Novel. Scholastic Inc. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-545-54113-8. Retrieved 24 June 2013.

[25] Harris, Cecil (2007). Charging the net: a history of Blacks in tennis from Althea Gibson and Arthur Ashe to the Williams sisters. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 9781566637145.

[NBA.com_1950_Color_Line-26] "1950-51 Season Overview: NBA's Color Line is Broken". National Basketball Association. Archived from the original on March 20, 2015. Retrieved March 9, 2013.

[27] Howell, Dave. "Six Who Paved the Way". National Basketball Association. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.

[28] Wagner, Jeremy. "9. Firsts For African-Americans". ESPN. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.

[kcstar-29] McDowell, Sam (March 9, 2013). "Sumner grad Harold Hunter, first African-American to sign with NBA team, dies at 86". Kansas City Star. Kansas City, Missouri. Archived from the original on March 12, 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-30.

[FOOTNOTESmith2003676-31] Smith 2003, p. 676.

[32] "Meet Bernie Custis, football's first African-American quarterback". Toronto Star. Toronto. August 12, 2011. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved 2015-04-12.

[33] "Thrower was first black QB to play in NFL". Associated Press. ESPN Classic. February 22, 2002. Archived from the original on November 10, 2013. Retrieved May 16, 2010.

[NYTGrierThamel-34] Thamel, Pete (January 1, 2006). "Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect". The New York Times. Retrieved April 10, 2011.

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