Bombing of Chongqing

The bombing of Chongqing (simplified Chinese: 重庆大轰炸; traditional Chinese: 重慶大轟炸, Japanese: 重慶爆撃), from 18 February 1938 to 23 August 1943, were massive terror bombing operations authorized by the Imperial General Headquarters and conducted by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service and fought entirely by the Chinese Air Force and National Revolutionary Army anti-aircraft artillery units in defense of the provisional wartime capital of Chongqing and other targets in Sichuan.

Bombing of Chongqing
Part of the Second Sino-Japanese War, World War II
A raid in 1940

The city during bombing
Date18 February 1938 – 23 August 1943
Location
Chungking, Republic of China
Belligerents
 China  Japan
Commanders and leaders
Chiang Kai-shek
Chen Cheng
Liu Zhi		 Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni
Hajime Sugiyama
Takijirō Ōnishi
Units involved
 Republic of China Air Force
41st and 42nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalions
Soviet Volunteer Group (stationed October 1938)		 Imperial Japanese Army Air Service
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Casualties and losses
10,000+ civilian casualties
over 30,000 buildings destroyed and much of the city center was damaged		 Dozens to 100+ of fighters and bombers shot down (incomplete data)
Map showing the bombing of Chongqing by Japan during World War II (Second Sino-Japanese War)

According to incomplete statistics, a total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chongqing, with each raid consisting from a few dozen to over 150 bombers per raid in 9,513 sorties dropping a mix of 21,593 high-explosive and incendiary bombs, killing 11,889 citizens, injuring 14,100 more, and destroying over 30,000 homes, and bombing 30 universities and middle schools.[1] These bombings were probably aimed at cowing the Chinese government, or as part of the planned but never executed Sichuan invasion.

Opposing forces
a surviving Chinese I-16 fighter at the Datangshan Aviation Museum

China

The recently centralized Republic of China Air Force was initially equipped at the outbreak of the air war in 1937 with largely US-made aircraft and training, as well as aircraft and training from other foreign sources, including Italian and Japanese army air force instructors, plus the addition of many former Chinese warlord air force aircraft and pilots, and numerous Chinese-American aviators volunteering for service with the Chinese Air Force,[2][3] had suffered severe losses through attrition from the Battle of Shanghai/Fall of Nanking/Fall of Taiyuan by the end of 1937, to the Fall of Wuhan by the end of 1938.[4][2] As China was not an aviation industrial power at the time, and with the war progressing with little replenishment to the equipment of the Chinese Air Force units, the Chinese found new hope from the lifeline of the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1937; the Chinese Air Force pilots had almost completely transitioned onto Soviet-made Polikarpov I-15 and Polikarpov I-16 series of fighter-pursuit aircraft by early 1938,[5] along with a few remaining Curtiss Hawk IIIs that was China's frontline fighter-attack weapon of choice when war began in 1937, plus several Dewoitine D.510 fighters left by the defunct French Volunteer Group (the 41st PS) which was disbanded in October of 1938.[6] However, with the ever increasing Japanese blockade of imports into China, particularly after Chongqing was cut-off from the sea after losing Nanning in the Battle of South Guangxi, although the victory at the Battle of Kunlun Pass kept the Burma Road open, with war now looming in Europe, the supplies needed by the Chinese were barely trickling in, and the Chinese Air Force had to make do with the increasingly poor flying performance and maintenance problems of these Soviet-made fighters burning low-grade 65-75 octane fuel in the first few years defending Chongqing and Chengdu while massive formations of Japanese aircraft benefitting from great technological advancements and burning 90+ octane fuel were flying ever-faster and higher, almost beyond practical reach of the obsolescent Chinese fighter aircraft; the British Royal Air Force for example were supplied directly by their own aircraft industry while benefitting from tremendous improvements in their fighter aircraft speed and acceleration performance by upgrading from the standard 87 octane fuel to the "secret 100 octane" formula later in the Battle of Britain.[7][8][9]

Among the primary and auxiliary airbases used by the Chinese Air Force in the Chongqing and Chengdu defense sector; Baishiyi Airbase, Fenghuangshan, Guangyangba, Liangshan, Shuangliu, Suining, Taipingsi, Wenjiang, Xinjin, among others.[10][11] There were 18 primary anti-aircraft artillery batteries positioned around Chongqing from 1939 to 1942, not including the air force's anti-aircraft gun units assigned specifically for the defense of the airbases.[12][13]

The A6M "Zero"; born and honed into the super-efficient lithe-fighter of unmatched performance of the time through years of the China war experience[14][15]

As the Chinese government and military forces fell-back and engaged the Japanese advances in new frontline operations in the beginning of 1938 at Wuhan, Taierzhuang, Guangdong and other main battle lines, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force began harassing the deep-rear with exploratory strikes against the anticipated national fortress of Chongqing, with the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force hitting hard at the frontlines in Wuhan. The exploratory strikes on Chongqing began on 18 February 1938, and continued sporadically at relatively low intensity until the commencement of "Operation 100" on 3 May 1939,[16] when airbases of newly-captured territories, specifically in Hubei province including Wuhan, allowed the Japanese to establish airbases and logistics to stage a sustained campaign of massively coordinated joint operations with the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service heavy bomber units.[17] The introduction of the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" fighter in 1940, the most advanced fighter aircraft produced at the time, ensured the Japanese practically complete air supremacy.[18][19] U.S. support for China had begun in earnest in 1941 following the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, with the oil and steel embargo against Japan, and consequently, the Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor; beginning in 1942, barrels of 100-octane avgas began to increasingly trickle into China through the cross-Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump" - mostly destined for United States Army Air Force (USAAF) operations - and the Chinese Air Force were provided with new American Republic P-43 Lancer pursuit planes, which in theory with its very fast high-altitude performance and good firepower from its four 50 cal (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, was quite the upgrade the Chinese Air Force needed to effectively hit back at the Japanese raiders, but it was proven to be extremely unreliable and may have killed more of its own pilots than the enemies, including veteran pilot and 4th PG CO Major Zheng Shaoyu whose P-43 caught fire during a ferrying flight back to combat operations in China and was killed in the ensuing crash.[20][21][22][23]

Japan

The majority of the Japanese air raids conducted against Chongqing were made with squadrons of medium-heavy bombers composed of Mitsubishi G3M variants, known under Allied codename "Nell", Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally", Fiat BR.20 Cicognas ("Ruth"), and Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily". Prior to the departure of the crack Japanese naval air units in China for the Pacific War in mid-late 1941, the new successor to the G3M bomber, the Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" was operationally tested in the bombing of Chongqing, followed by newer designs including the Mitsubishi Ki-67 "Peggy", Nakajima Ki-49 "Helen", and Yokosuka P1Y "Frances" (successor to the G4M) were deployed in the following years as the bombing of Chongqing continued.

Raids
Casualties of a mass-panic during a Japanese air raid in Chongqing in 1941. Photo by Carl Mydans

In the first two days of the Operation 100 bombing campaign, 54 and 27 Japanese bombers raided Chongqing on 3 and 4 of May 1939 respectively, dropping approximately a 3:2 ratio of Type 98/25 high explosive "land bombs" (98 dropped on day one) and Type 98/7 incendiary bombs (68 dropped on day one). The first raid killed almost 700 residents and injured 350 more. Major Deng Mingde led the 22nd Pursuit Squadron (of the 4th Group) Polikarpov fighters against the bombers on 3 May; shooting down seven bombers but losing two pilots including his deputy commander, the veteran Zhang Mingsheng. Zhang tried to save his damaged plane, but it became engulfed by fire, and while bailing-out and parachuting to safety, he was severely burned; he was then attacked by locals who thought he was a Japanese airman as he laid on the ground and rescued four hours later, succumbing to his battle wounds the following day in a hospital.[24][25][26][27][28]

The pre-dawn attack on 4 May resulted in over three thousand more deaths, injuring almost another 2,000 more, and leaving about 200,000 homeless. Although the attacking force was smaller and dropped fewer bombs, there was no interception of the bombers by the Chinese Air Force whose airbases in the Chongqing region were not yet set up for nighttime operations.[29][30]

Two months later, after tens of thousands of deaths, in retaliation for firebombing, the United States embargoed the export of airplane parts to Japan, thus imposing its first economic sanction against that nation.[24]

The Japanese began to embark more nighttime bombing raids against Chongqing in summer of 1939 in effort to reduce confrontation and casualties from defending Chinese Air Force fighters, however the Chinese pilots began operating nighttime interceptions over Chonqing with some success in shooting-down the nighttime bombers using "lone wolf" fighter tactics previously deployed during the Battle of Nanking two years earlier (and similar to the Wilde Sau tactics the Luftwaffe would deploy a few years later), and involves the coordination with a series of manually-operated ground based searchlights illuminating and tracking incoming bombers which can then be seen and targeted by the solitary fighter pilot; fighter ace Liu Zhesheng shot down a bomber in the night of 3 August, 1939 over Chonqing flying "lone wolf" in an I-15bis during such a nighttime intercept mission, among several kills he participated in claiming while battling in defense of Chongqing.[31] In the following night, Capt. Cen Zeliu would also claim a nighttime-kill of a bomber while at the controls of an I-15bis.[32]

Monks of the Ciyun Temple contributed great effort to rescuing and saving lives of residents over the course of the half-decade long bombing campaigns over Chongqing.[33]

By mid-1940, the IJN G3M Model 21 bombers that formed the primary aircraft of the carpet-bombing campaign against Chonqing and Chengdu, have become largely relegated to nighttime bombing attacks while daylight raids were being replaced with the new and improved Model 22/23 G3Ms equipped with the higher-octane rated and supercharged Kinsei 51 engines, boosting the power of each of the twin-engined bombers by 500 horsepower and greatly enabling the schnellbomber strategy further above the general obsolescence of the defending Chinese fighter aircraft now struggling to gain speed and altitude to make even a single head-on pass against the high-speed/high-altitude IJN bombing runs, and even more vulnerable to the massed-firepower of those heavy bomber formations. [34]

Also by mid-1940, the Japanese had employed new tactics to stave-off attacks from defending Chinese fighters; Chinese air raid early-warning net would alert the Chinese fighter squadrons to scramble their fighters towards approaching Japanese bomber formations (ideally with ample time to attain sufficient altitude ahead of the raids), however, they were being monitored by a fast Japanese Navy C5M (IJAAF designation Ki-15) scouting-attack planes at high-altitude which would radio instructions to the bombers to circle out of range as the Chinese fighters rose to meet the bombers; once the Chinese fighters had run low on fuel and returned to base the scouts would then direct the bombers to attack the Chinese fighters on the ground refueling.[35][36] While the Chinese soon cracked the code used by the C5M crews relaying messages to the bomber formations, some of the countermeasures used by the Chinese pilots were to launch a pair of I-16s that were almost fast enough to intercept the C5M in pursuit, but enough to force the scouts away, while a second flight of fighters were launched against returning Japanese bombers as the first flight of Chinese interceptors returned to disperse in smaller auxiliary airbases to refuel, although successful interceptions were still limited as the Polikarpovs struggled to engage the G3Ms, the new Model 22/23s in particular.[37]

A C5M and three G3Ms were shot down over eastern Chongqing on 20 May 1940 by the 24th PS, 4th PG equipped with the few (10 in total) 20mm ShVAK cannon-armed and more-powerful M-25V engined I-16 Type 17 fighters that the Chinese Air Force had; unfortunately two of the I-16 Type 17s were put out of action following the battle, having been shot-up by the defensive fire from the Japanese raiders and making forced-landings.[38][39]

The Japanese air raids against Chongqing had become increasingly intense and destructive as the "joint air strike force" of Imperial Japanese Army and Navy bomber formations began to comprise upwards of 150-200 bombers per raid, under the new codename "Operation 101" (101号作战),[40] and massed defensive machine gun fire from the bomber formations was very effective against the slow Chinese fighter aircraft further handicapped with burning low-grade fuel, much of which came by way of French Indochina and processed locally.[41]

Lt. General Saburo Endo who represented the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service during the Operation 101 and 102 joint-strike bombing campaigns, led a targeted aerial-assassination strike on Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek on 30 August 1941; he would put forth his "Futility of the Chongqing Bombing Thesis" (重慶爆擊無用論) days after the failed assassination strike, and gained a reputation as a post-war anti-war pacifist, establishing the China-Japan Servicemen's Devotion Society (日中友好军人协会)[42][43][44]

The Japanese warned foreign delegations in Chongqing to avoid being hit as collateral damage in the mass attacks by moving to pre-defined "secure areas" which would be exempt from bombing; a large Nazi flag was emblazoned on the roof of the German embassy in Chongqing, but was still hit by a Japanese air raid.[45]

Following the defeat of France by Germany in June 1940, the French Vichy Government submitted to the demands of the Japanese - allowing Japanese troops to conduct cross-border raids into Yunnan province, and the stationing of Japanese army air units at three airbases in French Indochina (now Vietnam), including Lạng Sơn.[46]

On 10, 12 and 16 June 1940, the Japanese raided Chongqing with 129, 154 and 114 bombers on these days respectively, while the Chinese I-15 and I-16 fighter squadrons engaged these attacks shooting down 13 of the raiders, perhaps more importantly, forcing bombers to miss their targets, although these disrupted flights of bombers may evade the Chinese fighters from their primary targets, and divert out to drop bombs on secondary targets, including other large population and industrial areas such as Ziliujing and Luxian.[47] The Chinese would be dealt with a serious blow a few weeks later in July of 1940 when the British yielded to Japanese diplomatic pressure and closed the Burma Road, which was China's primary lifeline for material and fuel needed in the defense of Chongqing and Chengdu.[48][49]

On 11 August 1940, 4th PG CO Maj. Zheng Shaoyu personally selected a team of five of his top fighter pilots, including ace-fighter pilot Capt. Liu Zhesheng and future-ace Lt. Gao Youxin to deploy a new weapon in an experiment to help with the dispersal of, and attacks against the massive Japanese bomber formations; multiple air burst bombs developed by combat flight instructor Yan Lei at the Central Air Force Academy at the Wujiaba Airbase. At 13:56 hours that day, 90 G3M bombers appeared in two waves, and Maj. Zheng's team, with ample preparations, maneuvered high and above the approaching bomber formation with precision flying while the Japanese aircrews observed the unusual movements of the Chinese fighters, which soon dropped the air-burst devices that descended under parachutes, and detonating just a few hundred meters in front of the lead bombers,[50] resulting in a breakup of the bomber formation followed by furious attacks from the Chinese fighter pilots the best they could with the handicap of the highly challenged performance and firepower of their Polikarpovs, shooting down two (five claimed) and damaging many others; eight Chinese fighters suffered various degrees of damage while the wreckages of Japanese bombers were found in Shichuxian and Shuangqing with three of the seven-man crew in one of the bombers found alive and taken prisoner.[51][48][52]

The state-of-the-art new Japanese Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" fighters were first deployed into combat in course of the Chongqing and Chengdu bombing raids, and received its first baptism of fire in aerial combat on 13 September 1940; 13 Zeroes of the 12th Kokutai led by Lieutenant Saburo Shindo which had escorted 27 G3M bombers on a raid into Chongqing were sent against 34 Chinese fighters: including Polikarpov I-15bis (28th PS, Maj. Louie Yim-qun) and I-16 (24th PS, Capt. Yang Mengjing) and other Polikarpov fighters of Maj. Zheng Shaoyu's 4th PG. The battle lasted about half an hour by which point the Chinese were low on fuel and had to break off. Many of the Polikarpovs were damaged or shot down (the Zero pilots claiming 27 Polikarpovs shot down), with ten pilots killed in action, and eight wounded, Maj. Zheng and Lt. Gao Youxin managed to drive Zeroes off the tails of other Chinese fighters, with Lt. Gao closing-in to 50 meters (160 ft) of one, and claiming a Zero shot-down, but in fact only four Zeroes suffered some damage, and all 13 safely returned to base in Wuhan.[53][54][55][56][57][48]

17th PS, 5th PG fighter pilot Xu Zhixiang leaning on an I-15bis, the fighter aircraft he fought in during the pivotal 13 September 1940 dogfight over Chongqing, enduring and surviving the arduous 1/2-hour long battle against the unprecedented performance and long-range endurance of the A6M Zero; Xu would exact some personal revenge a few years later with the shooting down of an A6M Zero over the Japanese airbase at Qiongshan, Hainan, on 04 March 1944 whilst flying a P-40 Warhawk[58]

As the already-desperate situation now irrefutable with the scourge of the new Zero fighter,[59][57] the Chinese Air Force high-command issued an all-points bulletin to avoid combat engagement against the new air-superiority fighter, however, Chinese fighters would continue with fatalistic courage to face the Zero on numerous occasions, including another large-scale dogfight over Chengdu on 14 March 1941, that saw the Japanese Zero fighters employ new tactics to avoid near-deadly mistakes from the 13 September 1940 air-battle experience; the intense dogfight over Chengdu was another devastatingly dark day in the tragic chapters of the Chinese Air Force in the war, as eight pilots were killed, including top-ace fighter pilots Maj. John Huang Xinrui and Capt. Cen Zeliu, along with the young 2Lt. Lin Heng (younger brother of renown architect Phyllis Lin Huiyin).[60][61][62][63]

In response to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the Empire of Japan was finally met with U.S. scrap metal and oil embargo against Japan and the freezing of Japanese assets in summer of 1941.[64][65]

On 5 June 1941, in midst of the increased brutality of the new "Operation 102" bombing campaign to capitulate China's war of resistance,[66] the Japanese flew more than 20 sorties, bombing the city for three hours. About 4,000 residents who hid in a tunnel were asphyxiated.[67] With the start of full-scale war between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany on 22 June 1941, and with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek looking for increased support from the Americans through the Lend-Lease Act of which was extended to China on 06 May 1941,[68][69][70] all new fighter aircraft produced by the Soviets were now directed to the battlefronts against Nazi Germany.[71][72]

On 11 August 1941, in what would be the last-recorded dogfight between the Chinese Air Force fighters and the IJN Zeroes before all active Zero squadrons were pulled out of China in preparations for Operation Z (the Pearl Harbor attack mission), future Japanese ace-fighter pilots Gitaro Miyazaki and Saburō Sakai were part of the escort of an Operation 102 bomber-attack and fighter-sweep of Chinese air bases between Chongqing and Chengdu, and encountered Chinese I-153 and I-16 fighters at Wenjiang Airbase; while shooting down all those that managed to take off or strafing those still taxiing down the runways, Saburo Sakai described how five Zeroes then struggled to shoot down the one last opponent still in the air that "was an absolute master" as it "snap-rolled, spiralled, looped and turned through seemingly impossible maneuvers... like a wraith", but Sakai himself only managing to finally shoot down the acrobatic biplane fighter pilot when it was forced to slow-roll in a climb while trying to clear over the top of a hill west of Chengdu; the belly of the Chinese fighter suddenly exposed right into the gunsight of Sakai's Zero, who fired cannon shells that "tore through the floorboards of the biplane", sending it down in a wide spin and exploding as it hit the hillside.[63] Four Chinese pilots were killed in this engagement,[73] including Lt. Huang Rongfa, whose fiancée, Ms. Yang Quanfang, took a pistol and shot herself at the memorial for him and the other martyrs on the 16th of August; under these special circumstances, Ms. Yang and Lt. Huang were buried together at the Chongqing Nanshan Air Force Martyrs Memorial Park.[74][75][76]

On 30 August 1941, Lt. General Saburo Endo, commander of the Imperial Japanese Army's 3rd Sentai, had already received intelligence reports regarding an upcoming military conference in Chongqing held by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, and the precise location for it, at the Yunxiu Villa, and led a massive strike from Wuhan consisting of 205 bomber-attack planes, with Saburo Endo himself personally leading the assassination strike on Yunxiu Villa (specifically the Yunxiu Tower); at first making a low-level bombing run for accuracy, but was severely hampered by intense bursts of anti-aircraft fire that according to him, "knocked me up away from my seat several times", and then having to increase altitude to 5,500 meters to make the bombing run instead, killing two guards west of Yunxiu Tower, but failing to kill the Generalissimo who recorded in his diary how he felt the immense shocks of the bombing and suffering of the people who experienced the torment not just day and night, but for over four years.[77][78]

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States declared war on Japan, and President Roosevelt sought an immediate counterattack for the humiliation of Pearl Harbor; in the urgency to keep China resupplied for the new Sino-US joint effort in the war against Japan, General Joseph Stilwell was sent to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek on a top secret arrangement for transferring of North American B-25 Mitchell bomber support equipment, radio-homing navigational aids and 100-octane avgas into China to support the planning of what was to become the Doolittle Raid against the Japanese home islands.[79][80] The badly needed high-octane avgas in China for the renewed war effort against the Empire of Japan were now increasingly being shipped via the risky Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump".[81][82] As Japan's focus have shifted towards the Pacific campaign, and much of the Japanese aerial-combat assets and experienced personnel had been diverted to support the war in the Pacific, the offensive campaign against Chonqing and Chengdu have been much curtailed, nonetheless, modern interceptor aircraft possessing far greater speed and firepower, supported by ground-based radar equipment, and new aircrew training supported by the US and allied partners allowed the Chinese Air Force to be in a much better position to fight back by August 1943. The last recorded air raid of the campaign took place on 19 December 1944.

Total bomb tonnage and raids

Three-thousand tons of bombs were dropped on the city between 1939 and 1942.[67] According to photographer Carl Mydans, the spring 1941 bombings were at the time "the most destructive shelling ever made on a city",[83] although terror bombing grew rapidly during the Second World War: by comparison 2,300 tons of bombs were dropped by Allied bombers on Berlin in a single night during the Battle of Berlin.[84] A total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chongqing.

Lawsuit against the Japanese government

In March 2006, 40 Chinese who were wounded or lost family members during the bombings sued the Japanese government, demanding 10,000,000 yen (628,973 yuan) each, and asked for apologies. "By filing a lawsuit, we want the Japanese people to know about Chongqing bombings," said a victim.[85][86] By 2015, over 180 Chongqing bombing survivors, including Lu Xianbo and Chen Guifang, have attempted to sue Japan for the war crimes in Japanese courts, seeking compensation and an official apology; a Tokyo District Court ruled against them, Chongqing victims group has vowed to keep pursuing the case, which is really not about monetary compensation, but more about getting official validation of what they suffered through.[87]

  • Volunteer army leaving Chongqing

Notes
  1. 历史上的今天官网 (23 September 2015). "重庆大轰炸的伤亡情况是怎样的？_看历史_历史上的今天". www.todayonhistory.com. Retrieved 12 December 2020. 重庆大轰炸被认为是与南京大屠杀同等性质的事件。 据不完全统计，日机空袭重庆共达268次，出动飞机9513架次，投弹21593枚，炸死市民11889人、炸伤14100人，炸毁房屋3万多幢，30所大中学校曾被轰炸。 统计显示，连续6年的“大轰炸”曾先后致重庆主城3万左右同胞遇难。
  2. Hui, Samuel (2009). "Fly Boys of the Generalissimo". Annals of the Chinese Air Force. www.warbirdforum.com. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  3. Chan, Gong, Little, Andy, John, Michael (7 October 2015). "World War 2 Flying Ace Arthur Chin's Amazing True Story". Disciples of Flight. Retrieved 10 December 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. "Sino-Japanese Air War 1937 – 1945". surfcity.kund.dalnet.se. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  5. Todd, Michael (3 May 2017). "China Lost 14 Million People in World War II. Why Is This Forgotten?". Pacific Standard. Retrieved 3 January 2021. ... the Soviet contribution to the Nationalists, particularly the air power... would appear significantly greater until the 14th U.S. Air Force arrived. In the U.S., we grow up thinking the Flying Tigers won the war...
  6. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Hakans Aviation page - Sino-Japanese Air War 1938". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  7. Cheung, Raymond (2015), Aces of the Republic of China Air Force, Aircraft of the Aces, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 9781472805614
  8. Dunn, Richard. "The 100-octane story". www.warbirdforum.com. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  9. Thorne, Stephen J. (29 July 2020). "Gassed up: The juice that fuelled victory in the Battle of Britain". Legion Magazine. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  10. Liu, Kan. "Chongqing issues 'Chongqing Airport History Map' - Chongqing News - CQNEWS_English". english.cqnews.net. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  11. 重庆晚报 (19 April 2016). "揭秘重庆空战：抗战期间出动飞机2159次-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  12. 重慶日報 (20 August 2014). "高射炮部隊射擊日轟炸機 破滅日軍空中斬首蔣介石--文化--人民網". culture.people.com.cn. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  13. 红岩春秋 (18 February 2019). "高射炮部队布防战时首都重庆，演绎惊魂与悲歌 - 上游新闻·汇聚向上的力量". www.cqcb.com. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  14. Matt, P. E. (7 February 2015). "The Shanghai Incident, 1932". Pacific Eagles. Retrieved 28 December 2020. The Shanghai Incident set the stage for the Second Sino-Japanese (war) which was to break out 5 years later. It involved the first prolonged use of aircraft carriers during a continental conflict, and demonstrated their usefulness in supporting expeditionary forces ashore – which would prove key during the wider Pacific War a decade later. It also featured one of the largest air conflicts since the Great War... Of particular concern to the Japanese during the conflict was the poor performance of her fighter aircraft. Robert Short had managed to set upon half a dozen B1M bombers and deal them heavy punishment...
  15. Goebel, Greg (1 November 2020). "The Mitsubishi A6M Zero". www.airvectors.net. Retrieved 28 December 2020. A6M1-A6M2 ZERO FIGHTER SPEC DEMANDS: On 19 May 1937, the IJN issued a request for the new fighter, dictating performance specifications; armament of two 7.7-millimeter machine guns and twin 20-millimeter cannon, plus two 60-kilogram (132-pound) bombs; and state-of-the-art radio gear. The performance specifications were raised in October, in light of experience obtained in fighting in China that year. The specifications were so aggressive that many thought that Japanese aircraft manufacturers could not meet them... Service trials were conducted through the first half of 1940, leading to combat trials in China and initial production.
  16. Chai, George. "抗击敌"100"号作战". www.flyingtiger-cacw.com. Retrieved 6 December 2020. 在“100”号作战的三天内，日军每天都集中了上百架飞机对兰州进行狂轰滥炸。使兰州市区和空军基地遭受了相当大的损失，日军飞机也被击落、击伤数十架。“100”号作战是日本陆军航空兵在海军航空兵配合下，对中国内地发动的第三次大攻击。
  17. Matt, P. E. (23 May 2015). "Operation 100: The Bombing of Chungking". Pacific Eagles. Retrieved 4 December 2020. Like the Army, the Navy lacked a fighter with sufficient range to escort the bombers all the way to the targets; the G3Ms would be exposed to Chinese interceptors. The scheme to bomb the cities of western China into submission during the summer was dubbed ‘Operation 100’... The 13th Ku went into action with a pair of raids on the 3rd and 4th May 1939... the raids were designed to force an end to the China Incident by terrorising the population of the new capital. the next day the bombers returned at dusk in order to avoid the Chinese fighters, and delivered another rain of fire on Chungking...
  18. Network, Warfare History (8 May 2019). "Japan's World War II Zero Fighter Terrified the Allies". The National Interest. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  19. 重慶日報 (20 August 2014). "高射炮部隊射擊日轟炸機 破滅日軍空中斬首蔣介石--文化--人民網". culture.people.com.cn. Retrieved 13 December 2020. 此時的中國空軍正處於極度艱難時期，落后的俄式戰斗機早已不是日本零式戰斗機的對手，而美國的援助還未到位。中國空軍幾乎喪失了與日機空中作戰的能力。
  20. Dunn, Richard (2004). "Republic P-43 Lancer and China's Air War". Annals of the Chinese Air Force. Daniel Ford. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  21. Roblin, Sebastien (16 October 2019). "The 1 Reason Imperial Japan Attacked Pearl Harbor: Oil". The National Interest. Retrieved 16 November 2020. From the Battle of Chongqing to the Attack on Pearl Harbor
  22. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Chinese biplane fighter aces - Cheng Hsiao-Yu". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  23. Sears, David (4 October 2016). "The Hump: Death and Salvation on the Aluminum Trail". HistoryNet. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
  24. Bix, Herbert P. (2001). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. p. 364.
  25. Gustavsson, Hakan (2017). "Lieutenant General Teng Ming-Teh". Biplane Fighter Aces from the Second World War. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  26. Gustavsson, Hakan (2011). "Chang Ming-Sheng". Biplane Fighter Aces from the Second World War. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  27. 红岩, 春秋 (18 April 2019). "45架日机临空，80年前"5•3"重庆大空战，到底有多激烈？ - 上游新闻·汇聚向上的力量". www.cqcb.com. Upstream News. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
  28. 红岩春秋, 杨文钊. "上游新闻 ~ 重庆珍档丨他在重庆上空为国捐躯，白市驿机场曾以他的名字命名……". wap.cqcb.com. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
  29. 老资料网, 老历史. "重庆大轰炸：最新统计伤亡超过四万人". www.laoziliao.net ~ Information Archives. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  30. 大爱重庆, 新浪网 (13 December 2017). "抗战期间日军 重庆大轰炸 到底有多惨烈? 45张老照片告诉你". 新浪网. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
  31. Chen, C. Peter. "WW2DB - Fighter Ace Liu Zhesheng". WW2DB.
  32. Chen, C. Peter. "Cen Zeliu". WW2DB. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  33. "勿忘國恥，去這座寺廟緬懷重慶大轟炸時期殉難的人們" (in Chinese). Retrieved 1 January 2021. 还值得一提的是，1938年2月至1943年8月是日本对重庆进行大轰炸的时期，在这五年半的时间里，慈云寺的僧人专门成立了救护队，日军轰炸过后就拿着担架和医药包赶往爆炸现场......
  34. Cheung, 2015, p. 72.
  35. Gustavsson, Hakan. "Kao You-Hsin". Chinese biplane fighter aces. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  36. "Mitsubishi Ki-15 Type 97 / C5M Type 98 "Babs"". Pacific Eagles. 26 May 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  37. Cheung, 2015, p. 73.
  38. Cheung, 2015, p. 73.
  39. 红岩, 春秋. "当年设施简陋的梁山机场，没想到却是中国空军保卫重庆的第一道空中防线！". www.cqcb.com. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
  40. 解放军报 (15 November 2017). "不应忘却的"重庆大轰炸"-新华网". www.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  41. 爱历史 (5 December 2015). "你绝对没见过的日军轰炸重庆的血债照片". inews.ifeng.com. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  42. 去历史, 人物专题. "远藤三郎简介_远藤三郎生平_远藤三郎 论持久战_趣历史". 趣历史. Retrieved 3 January 2021. 远藤三郎 (えんどう さぶろう), 1893年1月2日 - 1984年10月11日), 日本陆军航空兵中将, 轰炸重庆的第三飞行团团长, 重庆轰炸无用论和日中友好军人协会的创始人, 由于他在出版的日记中披露了石井四郎的731部队拿活人做实验的事实. 被日本右翼骂为国贼和赤色将军. 几乎所有的前陆军同僚都和他断了交.
  43. "远藤三郎为什么不承认是中国人打败了日本，而是美国 -趣历史". qulishi.com. 6 September 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2021. 1943年远藤三郎回国任日本陆军航空本部总务部长、航空兵器总局长官. 日本投降后1947年远藤三郎作为战犯被关监一年, 被释放后以开荒种地为生. 这个被日本人称为“有思想的军人”战犯, 此前一直不承认是中国人打败了日本, 而是美国打败了他们.直到战后十年, 他看到了毛泽东的 [论持久战] 那本书以后, 他才明白日本失败的根本原因. 首先是道义的失败. 侵略战争就是不正义的战争, 在此不说.
  44. 红岩春秋, 赵正超 (12 October 2015). ""放下屠刀"的侵华日军陆军中将--党史频道-人民网". dangshi.people.com.cn. Retrieved 3 January 2021. 重庆轰炸无用论 - 在远藤三郎头脑中酝酿已久: 重庆轰炸无用的看法是我在执行轰炸任务之前就已经理解到的, 为了赋予这一观点权威性, 我亲自乘上重型轰炸机与飞行员一同连续数次去轰炸重庆. 到达重庆上空向下俯视, 果然看到被江水隔开的重庆半岛上, 大街小巷已经被破坏得乱七八糟了, 但是两岸地区尤其是右岸地区, 在广阔的范围之内已经有了很好的发展势头, 究竟轰炸哪里能够给予致命伤害也完全不得而知. 在对黄山官邸突袭无果后. 9月3日, 远藤三郎向上级提交了一份意见书 - 有关内地进攻作战的意见).
  45. Matt, P. E. (7 August 2015). "Operation 101: Chungking, the Underground City". Pacific Eagles. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
  46. {{Cite web|title=三九事变（明号作战）1945年日法中南半岛战争及其后果|url=https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/109356668%7Caccess-date=2020-12-06%7Cwebsite=知乎专栏%7Clanguage=zh%7Cquote=
  47. 唐學鋒 (26 September 2014). "一位為空戰而生的"驅逐之王"--黨史頻道-人民網". people.com.cn. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  48. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Håkans Aviation page – Sino-Japanese Air War 1940". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  49. Lorraine Glennon. Our Times: An Illustrated History of the 20th Century. October 1995. ISBN 9781878685582 p.299
  50. 唐學鋒 (26 September 2014). "一位為空戰而生的"驅逐之王"--黨史頻道-人民網". people.com.cn. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  51. 红岩春秋 (30 August 2020). "上游新闻". wap.cqcb.com. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  52. "国殇(第3部):国民党正面战场空军抗战纪实 （插图版） 30 .璧山空战，折戟沉沙". reader.epubee.com. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  53. Cheung, 2015, pp. 74-75.
  54. Chen, C. Peter. "Gao Youxin". WW2DB. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  55. 萨沙, 资深中国近代军事历史作家 (9 May 2019). "永不归航的红色年轻战鹰：1位"八路军"青年战士的抗日空战". 知乎专栏 (in Chinese). Retrieved 21 December 2020.
  56. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Chinese biplane fighter aces - 'Clifford' 'Long Legged' Louie Yim-Qun". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  57. O'Connell, John F. (2016). "Dealing with the Japanese Zero". Air Power History. 63 (3): 25–30. JSTOR 26276773.
  58. Cheung, 2015, p. 80-81. Hsu Chi-hsiang (Xu Zhixiang) was shot down in his I-15bis in the air combat debut of the A6M Zero... he would exact some personal revenge on 04 March 1944 over the Japanese airbase at Chiung-Shan (Qiongshan) on Hainan island... shooting down the lead Zero in a flight of three... the flight leader or perhaps the instructor...
  59. LoProto, Mark (9 April 2018). "Pearl Harbor Scourge: Mitsubishi A6M Zero". Visit Pearl Harbor. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
  60. ROCAF Official. "314 Air Battle over Shuangliu". air.mnd.gov.tw. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  61. 金陵上空的鹰 (12 April 2020). "莫道君行早，踏遍青山人未老，风景这边独好". 新浪网 ~ Sina.
  62. 蔡, George. "空军百战英雄黄新瑞". www.flyingtiger-cacw.com. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  63. Caidin, 1969, pp. 60-61.
  64. Editors, History com. "United States freezes Japanese assets". HISTORY. Retrieved 13 November 2020.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  65. Morton, Louis (1961), "Chapter V: The Decision for War", War in the Pacific - Strategy and Command: The First Two Years, US Army in WWII, p. 113, retrieved 13 November 2020 – via hyperwar Foundation
  66. 戴, 广德 (25 February 2020). "苦难岁月：重庆大轰炸记实|中共金佰利游戏平台网址省委统一战线工作部". 中共金佰利游戏平台网址省委. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  67. Moser, Don (1978). China-Burma-India. Time-Life. pp. 11, 8.
  68. "一些史实混淆、存在偏见甚至谬误的说法，会影响人们对抗日战争的认识和经验总结——抗日战争若干认识之辨析|云南信息报". www.ynxxb.com. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  69. 小超历史记 (11 October 2020). "【一点资讯】《租借法案》——傲慢与偏见，中国人的悲哀 www.yidianzixun.com". www.yidianzixun.com. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  70. "The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia: Lend-Lease". pwencycl.kgbudge.com. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Churchill said, "The Lend-Lease Bill must be regarded without question as the most unsordid act in the whole of recorded history." This was a bit generous. The original intent of Lend-Lease, as understood by Congress and the public, was to avoid shedding the blood of American soldiers by enabling others to fight more effectively... Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to China on 6 May 1941, and thereafter China received considerable Lend-Lease assistance ($846 million), though this was dwarfed by that given to Commonwealth nations and Russia.
  71. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Hakans Aviation page - Sino-Japanese Air War 1941". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  72. Series, GI Roundtable. "How Much of What Goods Have We Sent to Which Allies? | AHA". www.historians.org. Retrieved 8 January 2021. On the very day that the bill was signed, Great Britain and Greece (then at war with Italy) were declared eligible for lend-lease aid. Goods started to move almost immediately. China, engaged in a desperate struggle with Japan, was declared eligible on May 6, and Norway on June 4, 1941. The U.S.S.R. attacked by Germany on June 22, 1941—was declared eligible for lend-lease aid on November 7, 1941.
  73. 徐 (Xú), 2016, pp. 498-501. 谭烈士桌励 王烈士崇士 黄烈士荣发 欧阳烈士鼎 Martyr Ouyang Martyr Huang Martyr Wang Martyr Tan
  74. 徐 (Xú), 2016, p. 500. 黄烈士荣发
  75. Gustavsson, Hakans. "Hakans Aviation page - Sino-Japanese Air War 1941". Biplane Fighter Aces - China. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  76. 重庆晚报, 慢新闻 (22 April 2020). "重庆掌故| 揭秘重庆首座机场广阳坝机场，刘湘主持修建，603位民工献出生命 - 上游新闻". www.cqcb.com. Retrieved 30 December 2020. 今天南山的空军坟，曾埋葬200余名为保卫重庆牺牲的蓝天健儿 (Over 200 aerial warriors serving in defense of Chongqing are memorialized at the Chongqing Nanshan Air Force Martyrs Memorial Park )。
  77. Chen, Xiaonan (8 July 2016). "日军轰炸重庆持续6年10个月 致32829人伤亡". 凤凰网卫视-凤凰节目. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  78. 红岩春秋, 赵正超 (12 October 2015). ""放下屠刀"的侵华日军陆军中将--党史频道-人民网". dangshi.people.com.cn. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
  79. Horne, Alistair (10 February 2012). "Payback for Pearl". HistoryNet.com. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  80. 國防軍事, 部落格-TW (15 April 2009). "4月18驚爆東京30秒，電影《珍珠港》沒說完的英雄故事〈一〉 - 新一軍的那些人那些事 - udn部落格". udn.com (in Chinese). Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  81. Norton, Wilma (25 September 2005). ""Forgotten theater' pilot recalls crossing Himalayas". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  82. Correll, John T. "Over the Hump to China". Air Force Magazine. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
  83. Moser, Don (1978). China-Burma-India. Time-Life. p. 8.
  84. "World War 2 Timelines 1939-1945 - European Air War 1944". WorldWar-2.net. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  85. "Chongqing bombing victims sue". The Japan Times. 31 March 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
  86. "Japanese Government accused of Chongqing Bombings". People's Daily Online. 26 October 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
  87. https://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/world/article32532561.htm

References
  • Cheung, Raymond. Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978 14728 05614.
  • Caidin, Martin. Zero Fighter: Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II Weapons Book No. 9. New York, NY: Ballantine Books Inc, 1969. ISBN 978 03560 30739.
  • 徐 (Xú), 露梅 (Lùméi). 隕落 (Fallen): 682位空军英烈的生死档案 - 抗战空军英烈档案大解密 (A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom) 东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016. ISBN 978-7-5126-4433-5.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.