Isfahan

What was to become the city of Isfahan in later historical periods probably emerged as a locality and settlement that gradually developed over the course of the Elamite civilisation (2700–1600 BCE).

Under Median rule, this commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, steadily growing into a noteworthy regional centre that benefited from the exceptionally fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana.

An ancient artifact from Isfahan City Center museum

Once Cyrus the Great (reg. 559–529 BCE) had unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE), the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. It was Cyrus who, having just taken Babylon, made an edict in 538 BCE, declaring that the Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem (see Ezra ch. 1). Now it seems that some of these freed Jews settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote:[12]

When the Jews emigrated from Jerusalem, fleeing from Nebuchadnezzar, they carried with them a sample of the water and soil of Jerusalem. They did not settle down anywhere or in any city without examining the water and the soil of each place. They did all along until they reached the city of Isfahan. There they rested, examined the water and soil, and found that both resembled Jerusalem. Thereupon they settled there, cultivated the soil, raised children and grandchildren, and today the name of this settlement is Yahudia.

The Parthians, in the period 247 BCE – 224 CE, continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering the Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organisation introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.

Isfahan at the end of the 6th century (top), consisting of two separate areas of Sassanid Jay and Jewish Yahudia. At the 11th century (bottom), these two areas are completely merged.

The next empire to rule Persia, the Sassanids (224 CE –651 CE), presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reform and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who came from seven noble and important Iranian royal families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban planning projects. While Isfahan's political importance declined during the period, many Sassanid princes would study statecraft in the city, and its military role developed rapidly. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The words 'Aspahan' and 'Spahan' are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'.[13] Although many theories have been mentioned about the origin of Isfahan, in fact little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty (c. 224 – c. 651 CE). The historical facts suggest that in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht, the Jewish consort of Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) settled a colony of Jews in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya), a settlement 3 km northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Gabae (it's Achaemid and Parthian name; Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic 'Jay') that was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River. The gradual population decrease of Gay (Jay) and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs after the Islamic conquest of Iran resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The words "Aspadana", "Ispadana", "Spahan" and "Sepahan", all from which the word Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located.

Isfahan and Gay were both circular in design, a characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities.[14] However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan is not uncovered yet.[15]

• 
  Isfahan, capital of the Kingdom of Persia
• 
  Pont Alla from Voyage to the Levant, Guillaume Cavelier, 1714.
• 
  Isfahan to the south side, drawing by Eugène Flandin
• 
  Ali minaret, 1840, drawing by Eugène Flandin
• 
  Russian army in Isfahan in the 1890s

When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642, they made it the capital of al-Jibal ("the Mountains") province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid (Buwayhid) dynasty, which rose to power and ruled much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid caliphs waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the reign of the Buyid amirs during the tenth century.[16][17][18] The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; but it was under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92) that the city grew in size and splendour.[19]

After the fall of the Seljuqs (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities such as Tabriz and Qazvin. During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part."[20]

In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the Turko-Mongol warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents, and his soldiers killed a reported 70,000 citizens. An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.[21]

Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid period (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas I (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the 17th-century world. In 1598 Shah Abbas the Great moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan; he named it Ispahān (New Persian) so that it wouldn't be threatened by the Ottomans. This new status ushered in a golden age for the city, with architecture and Persian culture flourishing. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the Caucasus, that Abbas and other Safavid rulers had permitted to emigrate en masse, settled in the city. So now the city had enclaves of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent.[22] Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Persia in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.[22][23] During the Safavid era, the city contained a very large Armenian community as well. As part of Abbas's forced resettlement of peoples from within his empire, he resettled as many as 300,000 Armenians[24][25]) from near the unstable Safavid-Ottoman border, primarily from the very wealthy Armenian town of Jugha (also known as Old Julfa) in mainland Iran.[25] In Isfahan, he ordered the foundation of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa.[24][25] Today, the New Jolfa district of Isfahan remains a heavily Armenian-populated district, with Armenian churches and shops, the Vank Cathedral being especially notable for its combination of Armenian Christian and Iranian Islamic elements. It is still one of the oldest and largest Armenian quarters in the world. Following an agreement between Shah Abbas I and his Georgian subject Teimuraz I of Kakheti ("Tahmuras Khan"), whereby the latter submitted to Safavid rule in exchange for being allowed to rule as the region's wāli (governor) and for having his son serve as dāruḡa ("prefect") of Isfahan in perpetuity, the Georgian prince converted to Islam and served as governor.[22] He was accompanied by a troop of soldiers,[22] some of whom were Georgian Orthodox Christians.[22] The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military slaves), as well as Georgian women.[22] Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian.[22] During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became very famous in Europe, and many European travellers made an account of their visit to the city, such as Jean Chardin. This prosperity lasted until it was sacked by Afghan invaders in 1722 during a marked decline in Safavid influence.

Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in a move of the capital to Mashhad and Shiraz during the Afsharid and Zand periods respectively, until it was finally moved to Tehran in 1775 by Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty.

In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan during the reign of Fath Ali Shah.[26]

• 
  Street from above
• 
  Isfahan in 1924
• 
  Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill
• 
  General map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste

In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by a very large number of people from southern Iran, firstly during the population migrations at the start of the century, and again in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War.

Today, Isfahan produces fine carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods including sweets. There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as facilities for producing nuclear fuel (UCF) within the environs of the city.[27] Isfahan has one of the largest steel-producing facilities in the region, as well as facilities for producing special alloys. Mobarakeh Steel Company is the biggest steel producer in the whole of the Middle East and Northern Africa, and it is the biggest DRI producer in the world.[28] The Isfahan Steel Company was the first manufacturer of constructional steel products in Iran, and it remains the largest such company today.[29]

The city has an international airport and a metro line.

There are a major oil refinery and a large airforce base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city.[30][31] Isfahan is also attracting international investment,.[32] Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007. 2020 Iran-Qatar Joint Economic Commission met in the city.[33]

There is an artificial network of canals whose components are called Madi which were built during the rule of Safavid dynasty for water channeling from "Zaayaandeh Roud" river into different parts of the city. Designed by Sheikh Bahaï, an engineer of Shah Abbas, this network has 77 madis on the northern part, and 71 on the southern part of Zayandeh Roud. In 1993, this centuries-old network provided 91% of agricultural water needs, 4% of industrial needs, and 5% of city needs.[34] 70 emergency wells were dug in 2018 to avoid water shortages.[35][36][37]

• Media related to Canals in Isfahan at Wikimedia Commons

Towns and villages around Isfahan have been hit so hard by drought and water diversion that they have emptied out and people who lived there have moved.[38][39] An anonymous journalist said that what’s called drought is more often the mismanagement of water.[40][41][42] Subsidence rate is dire and decreases by one meter in aquifer level annually.[43] As of 2020 the city had the worst air quality between major Iranian cities.[44][45][46][47]

Rosa 'Ispahan'

The Damask rose cultivar Rosa 'Ispahan' is named after the city. Isfahan endemic cows went extinct in 2020.[48] Wagtails are often seen in farmlands and parks.[49]

• Media related to Rosa Ispahan at Wikimedia Commons

The mole cricket is one of the major pests of plants in the soil, especially grass roots.[50][51] Sheep and rams are the animal symbol of Isfahan.[52]

IRGC AF has an airbase in the city[53][54] and has been taking a cloud seeding contract project through UAVs in Isfahan.[55]
The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force has an airbase named 8th Predator Tactical Fighter Base (TFB.8) which is the home base for Iranian F-14s.[56][57][58][59] Sepah Pasdaran is named "Master of the Era" ("Saheb al zaman" in Arabic and Farsi) after Mahdi. On October 26th, 2020, the Ghasem Suleimani base was built for combating the COVID-19 pandemic in Isfahan.[60][61][62]

2019 Isfahan Sepah pasdaran commander inauguration 5

Situated at 1,590 metres (5,217 ft) above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has an cold desert climate (Köppen BWk). No geological obstacles exist within 90 kilometres (56 miles) north of Isfahan, allowing cool winds to blow from this direction. Despite its altitude, Isfahan remains hot during the summer, with maxima typically around 35 °C (95 °F). However, with low humidity and moderate temperatures at night, the climate is quite pleasant. During the winter, days are cool while nights can be very cold. Snow falls an average of 7.8 days each winter.[63] The Zayande River starts in the Zagros Mountains, flowing from the west through the heart of the city, then dissipates in the Gavkhouni wetland. Planting olive trees in the city is economically viable because it is compatible with water shortage.[64]

Bayat-e Esfahan is one of the melodic pieces of Iranian traditional music.

Isfahani singer Ali Reza Eftekhari

Iranian singer Salar Aghili performed in the city of Isfahan on January 12 and 13, 2018, without the female members of his band due to interference by local officials at the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance.[84]

Atlas for Isfahan Megacity is an internet service for data and statistics in Farsi made available in 2015.[85][86][87] IRIB has a TV network and Radio channel in the city.[88] During the Qajar era, Farhang, the first newspaper publication in the city, was printed for 13 years.[89]

Some major philosophers include Mir Damad, known for his concepts of time and nature, as well as founding the School of Isfahan,[90] and Mir Fendereski, who was known for his examination of art and philosophy within a society.[91]

Esfahani is one of the main dialects of Western Persian.[92][93] Jewish districts have a unique dialect.[94]

Main places

A handicraft shop

Shah Mosque. Painting by the French architect, Pascal Coste, visiting Persia in 1841

Si-o-se Pol

Naghsh-e-Jahan Square

View of Ali Qapu Palace

A carpet shop in Grand Bazaar, Isfahan

Khaju Bridge

Detail of Khaju Bridge

Armenian Vank Cathedral

The city centre consists of an older section revolving around the Jameh Mosque, and the Safavid expansion around Naqsh-e Jahan Square, with nearby places of worship, palaces, and bazaars.[95]

Bagh-e Rezvan Cemetery is one of the biggest and advanced in the country.[96] Other cemetries include New Julfa Armenian Cemetery & Takht-e Foulad.

Bazaar of Isfahan & Qeysarie Gate was built in– 17th century.Social hubs were opium houses & coffeehouses clustered around Chahar bagh & Chehel sotun the best-known traditional coffeehouse is qahva-ḵāna-ye Golestān[97][98][99][100][101][102] There is also Bazar Honar.

Persian pottery from the city Isfahan, 17th century

The bridges on the Zayanderud river comprise some of the finest architecture in Isfahan. The oldest bridge is the Shahrestan bridge, whose foundations were built by the Sasanian Empire (3rd–7th century Sassanid era); it was repaired during the Seljuk period. Further upstream is the Khaju bridge, which was built by Shah Abbas II in 1650. It is 123 metres (404 feet) long with 24 arches, and also serves as a sluice gate.

Another bridge is the Choobi (Joui) bridge, which was originally an aqueduct to supply the palace gardens on the north bank of the river. Further upstream again is the Si-o-Seh Pol or bridge of 33 arches. The building was built during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great by Sheikh Baha'i and connected Isfahan with the Armenian suburbs of New Jolfa. Armenian suburb of New Julfa. It is by far the longest bridge in Isfahan at 295 m (967.85 ft).

Another notable bridge is the Marnan Bridge.

Churches in the city are mostly in the New Julfa region. Some of the historically important ones are Bedkhem Church – 1627, St. Georg Church – 17th century, St. Mary Church – 17th century, Vank Cathedral – 1664. The oldest one is St. Jakob Church – 1607.

• Emamzadeh Ahmad
• Emamzadeh Esmaeil, Isfahan
• Emamzadeh Haroun-e-Velayat – 16th century
• Emamzadeh Jafar
• Emamzadeh Shah Zeyd

The Pardis Honar Park cost 30 billion toman in District 6 by 2018.[103] Some other zoological gardens and parks (including public & private beach parks, non beach parks) are Birds Garden, Flower Garden of Isfahan, Nazhvan Recreational Complex, Moshtagh, Shahre royaha amusement park, and the East Park of Isfahan. [104]

• Alam's House
• Amin's House
• Malek Vineyard
• Qazvinis' House – 19th century
• Sheykh ol-Eslam's House
• Constitution House of Isfahan

• Al-Rashid Mausoleum – 12th century
• Baba Ghassem Mausoleum – 14th century
• Mausoleum of Safavid Princes
• Nizam al-Mulk Tomb – 11th century
• Saeb Mausoleum
• Shahshahan mausoleum – 15th century
• Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum – 14th century

Menar Jonban was built in the 14th century. The tomb is an Iwan measuring 10 meters high.[105] Other menars include Ali minaret – 11th century, Bagh-e-Ghoushkhane minaret – 14th century , Chehel Dokhtaran minaret – 12 century, Dardasht minarets – 14th century, Darozziafe minarets – 14th century, and Sarban minaret.

• Agha Nour mosque – 16th century
• Hakim Mosque
• Ilchi mosque
• Jameh Mosque[106]
• Jarchi mosque – 1610
• Lonban mosque
• Maghsoudbeyk mosque – 1601
• Mohammad Jafar Abadei mosque – 1878
• Rahim Khan mosque – 19th century
• Roknolmolk mosque
• Seyyed mosque – 19th century
• Shah Mosque – 1629
• Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque – 1618

• Contemporary Arts Museum Isfahan
• Isfahan City Center Museum
• Museum of Decorative Arts
• Natural History Museum of Isfahan – 15th century

• Chahar Bagh School – early 17th century
• Harati
• Kassegaran school – 1694
• Madreseye Khajoo
• Nimavar school – 1691
• Sadr school – 19th century

• Ali Qapu (The Royal Palace) – early 17th century
• Chehel Sotoun (The Palace of Forty Columns) – 1647
• Hasht-Behesht (The Palace of Eight Paradises) – 1669
• Shah Caravanserai
• Talar Ashraf (The Palace of Ashraf) – 1650

A view of Meydan Kohne

• Chaharbagh Boulevard – 1596
• Chaharbagh-e-khajou Boulevard
• Meydan Kohne (Old Square)
• Naqsh-e Jahan Square also known as "Shah Square" or "Imam Square" – 1602
• Amadegah[107][108]
• Taleghani street (Shah street)[109]

• Kenisa-ye Bozorg (Mirakhor's kenisa)
• Kenisa-ye Molla Rabbi
• Kenisa-ye Sang-bast
• Mullah Jacob Synagogue
• Mullah Neissan Synagogue
• Kenisa-ye Keter David

Gavart village pigeon towers

• Atashgah – a Zoroastrian fire temple
• New Julfa – 1606
• Pigeon Towers that are placed all around the city namely 22 towers inside Gavart, Hase [110][111][112][113][114][115] – 17th century
• Isfahan Observatory
• Asarkhane Shahi

Isfahan Beryani

Gosh-e fil and Doogh is a famous city snack.[116][117] Other traditional breakfasts, desserts and meals include Khoresht mast, Beryani and meat with beans and pumpkin aush.[118][119][120][121][122][123][124]

Isfahan city is one of the active cities in this field with the production of 1,300 tons of salmon. More than 28% of the country's ornamental fish is produced in Isfahan province and 780 units are active in the field of ornamental fish production, which in 2017 produced 65 million and 500 thousand pieces of ornamental fish in Isfahan province.[136]

Opium was produced and exported in Isfahan from 1850 until it became illegal and was an important source of income.[137] Isfahan has a large number of aqueducts, Farmers had to divert water from the river to farms by canal.[138] Niasarm is one of the biggest water canals.[139] From 2012-2013 there have been large protests against Isfahan-Yazd water tunnel by farmers.[140] Fruits and vegetables central market is where farmers sell their product wholesale buying 10,000 tons farmers product a day.[141]

The industrialization of Isfahan dates from the Pahlavi period as in all of Iran, and was marked by the strong growth at that time of the textile industry; which earned the city the nickname “ Manchester of Persia”.[142][143] There are 9200 industrial units in the city %40 of Iranian textile industry is in Isfahan.[144]

Telecommunication Company of Iran and Mobile Telecommunication Company of Iran provide 4G, 3G, Broadband and VDSL.[145][146]

Isfahan Scientific and Research Town started its executive activity in 2001 for acting as a medium between government, industry and academia toward a knowledge-based economy.[147]

It is also the third largest medicine manufacturing hub in Iran.[148]

Snapp! and Tapsi[165][166] are two of the carpooling apps in the city.[167][168] There are 42 bicycle sharing stations and 150 kilometers bicycle pavements built by city,[169][170] Women are not allowed according to decree by Representative of the Supreme Leader in Isfahan Ayatollah Yousef Tabatabai Nejad and General Attorney Ali Esfahani.[171][172][173][174][175] Shared bicycles were reintroduced to the city again in 2020 with the condition that women won't be allowed, men can use their national ID for getting a bicycle[176]

Control of transfer of freight cargoes to the city are under Isfahan Customs Administration domain.[177][178][179]

Isfahan International Airport is the only commercial airport.[54]

Over the past decade, Isfahan's internal highway network has been undergoing major expansion. Much care has been taken to prevent damage to valuable, historical buildings. Modern freeways connect the city to the country's major cities, including the capital Tehran (length approximately 400 km) to the north and Shiraz (200 km) to the south. Highways also service satellite cities surrounding the metropolitan area.[180] Isfahan Eastern Bypass Freeway is under construction.

Isfahan and Suburbs Bus Company runs transit buses in the city.East-West BRT Bus Rapid Transit line buses carry 120,000 on peak day.[181]

A line of metro that runs for 11 km from north to south opened on 15 October 2015. Two more lines are in construction, alongside three suburban rail lines.[182]

China financed Tehran–Qom–Isfahan High Speed Rail.[183]

Ghadir Bridge, Vahid Bridge, Ferdosi Bridge, Felezi Bridge, Azar Bridge.Until 2015 Isfahan-Tehran grade separation flyover bridge has cost 120 billion toman.[184]

An old master of hand-printed carpets in Isfahan bazaar

Isfahan Healthcare city complex, built on a 300 hectare site near the Aqa Babaei Expressway, is intended to boost the city's medical tourism revenues.[213]

IsfahanCityCenter outside night

Hypermarkets
Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Isfahan city center, Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc.,Park commercial complex[214] & Isfahan Mall.
Cinemas
There are 9 cinemas.[215] Historically cinemas in old Isfahan were entertainment for worker class while the religious people considered cinema to be mostly an impure place and going to the cinema to be haram. Because of 1979 revolution many cinemas in Isfahan were burned down. Great filmmakers such as Agnès Varda and Pier Paolo Pasolini shot scenes from their films in Isfahan. Cinema Iran now a ruin was one of the oldest cinemas in the city.[216][217][218]

Naghsh-e Jahan Stadium

Isfahan has three association football clubs that play professionally. These are:

• Sepahan Isfahan FC
• Zob Ahan Isfahan FC
• Giti Pasand

Sepahan has won the most league titles among the Iranian clubs (2002–03, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 and 2014–15).[219]

Giti Pasand also has a futsal team, Giti Pasand FSC, one of the best teams in Asia. They won the AFC Futsal Club Championship in 2012 and were runners-up in 2013. Basketball clubs include Zob Ahan Isfahan BC, Foolad Mahan Isfahan BC[220] There is also women's volleyball team Giti Pasand Isfahan VC that plays matches in Iranian Women's Volleyball League.[221] There are Pahlavani zoorkhanehs in the city.[222][223] Foolad Mobarakeh Sepahan (handball) team is one of the teams in Iranian handball league. Sepahan has a youth women runners that became national champion in 2020.[224]

The chairman of the city council is Alireza Nasrisfahani,[225] and the mayor is Ghodratollah Noroozi.[226] Representative for supreme leader and representative for Isfahan in Assembly of Experts is Yousef Tabatabai Nejad.[227] The city's divided into 15 municipal districts.

• Shahrak-e Zayandeh Rud , District 4 Pinart[228][229]

In the new mechanism for preparing and approving the comprehensive plan of the city, there is an institution called the Isfahan city leadership council under the Islamic City Council of Isfahan domain.Member organizations are

1. Isfahan Guilds Chamber
2. Isfahan Chamber of Commerce, Industries, Mines and Agriculture
3. Department of Roads and Urban Development
4. Department of Economic Affairs and Finance
5. Department of Environmental Protection
6. Isfahan Governorate
7. Management and Planning Organization
8. Isfahan Farmers' House
9. Isfahan Workers' House
10. Agricultural Jihad Organization
11. NGOs

[230]

Coloring theme for the city has been Turquoise for a period of time.[231]

City waste is processed and recycled in Isfahan Waste Complex.[232]

Esfahan water & wastewater Organization is responsible for piping operation, network installation, preventive maintenance, repairing waterworks, wastewater equipment, supervising wastewater collection and treatment and disposal in the city.[233][234]

Municipality created a document in 2020 outlining future development program for the city.[235]

Main parties are Reformists(including Islamic Iran Freedom and Justice Organization) and Islamic revolution principalists forces.[236]

Russian Federation General Consulate in Isfahan is registered cultural heritage.[242] Chinese have expressed readiness to be the first country that opens consulate in a diplomatic zone in the central city[243] The residence of Afghan nationals is allowed in Esfahan city.There is a plan in the future to create a diplomatic district next to Imam Khamenei international convention center for countries to base their consulates offices in.[164]

Esfahan Street in Kuala Lumpur, and Kualalampur Avenue in Isfahan

Isfahan is twinned with:[244]

Isfahan cooperates with:

• Barcelona, Spain (2000)[245]
• Gyeongju, South Korea (2013)[246]

• Matthee, Rudi (2012). Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1845117450.