List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors

Soon after the formation of the Soviet Union, emigration restrictions were put in place to keep citizens from leaving the various countries of the Soviet Socialist Republics,[1] though some defections still occurred. During and after World War II, similar restrictions were put in place in non-Soviet countries of the Eastern Bloc,[2] which consisted of the Communist states of Central and Eastern Europe (except Communist Yugoslavia) and the People's Republic of Mongolia.[3][4]

Until 1952, however, the Inner German border between East Germany and West Germany could be easily crossed in most places.[5] Accordingly, before 1961, most of that east–west flow took place between East and West Germany, with over 3.5 million East Germans emigrating to West Germany before 1961.[6][7] On August 13, 1961, a barbed-wire barrier, which would become the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin, was erected by East Germany.[8]

Although international movement was, for the most part, strictly controlled, there was a steady loss through escapees who were able to use ingenious methods to evade frontier security.[9] Numerous notable Eastern Bloc citizens defected to non-Eastern Bloc countries.[10]

The following list of Eastern Bloc defectors contains notable defectors from East Germany, the Soviet Union, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Albania before those countries' conversions from Communist states in the early 1990s.

List of defections
Defections violating emigration restrictions of the Eastern Bloc countries
Defector Profession/
Prominence		 Birthplace Year Notes
George BalanchinechoreographerRussia1924Defected during tour of Germany to the Weimar Republic
Boris BazhanovPolitburo SecretaryRussia1928Defected to France via Iran and India
Georges AgabekovOGPUTurkmenistan1930Defected in France; led the manhunt for Bazhanov before defecting
Grigol RobakidzeauthorGeorgia1930Defected to Germany; primarily known for his exotic prose and anti-Soviet émigré activities
Tatiana TchernavinwriterRussia1932Fled from USSR with her husband Vladimir Tchernavin (physicist, writer) and her son Andrei through Karelia to Finland and then to Great Britain. (She and her son visited her husband in gulag prison, then fled together). She wrote a book about their experience: 'Escape from the Soviets' and her husband: 'I Speak For the Silent Prisoners of the Soviets'
George GamowphysicistUkraine1933First tried to kayak across the Black Sea; defected in Brussels, Belgium; later discovered alpha decay via quantum tunneling
Ignace ReissNKVDRussia1937Former head of Soviet intelligence services; assassinated by NKVD
Walter KrivitskyNKVDRussia1937Defected in Paris, France after assassination of Reiss; apparent 1941 suicide in the U.S. may have been an NKVD assassination
Alexander OrlovNKVDBelarus1938Fled while stationed in Spain to avoid execution in the Great Purge
Genrikh LyushkovNKVDRussia1938Crossed the border into Manchukuo with secret documents; family arrested and sent to Gulag; several died
Abdurakhman AvtorkhanovauthorRussia1942Sent to infiltrate anti-Soviet Chechens, he joined them instead
Nasreddin Murat-Khanarchitect/engineerRussia1944Fled to evade religious persecution. Defected in Berlin, Germany; then to Pakistan in 1950 where he was given refuge and citizenship. In honour of his new home, Pakistan; he designed and constructed the Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore, Punjab which stands as a national symbol of the country to this day. He also constructed the Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore and Nishtar Medical University in Multan.
Victor KravchenkoengineerUkraine1944Soviet engineer, witnessed horrors of Holodomor; defected when serving in the Soviet Purchasing Agency in Washington DC in the United States
G. M. DimitrovpoliticianBulgaria1945Saved from execution by U.S. ambassador; later founded anti-Communist organizations
Fedir Bohatyrchukchess, medical doctorUSSR1945Former Soviet chess champion eventually immigrated to Canada, where he became a professor of medicine, and resumed his competitive chess
Géza FüsterchessHungary1945Defected through East Berlin with friend Pal Benko who was caught and jailed three years
Igor GouzenkoGRURussia1945Defected in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; helped uncover Communist spy rings
Konstantin VolkovNKVDRussia1945Deputy head of the NKVD in Istanbul, Turkey; contacted the British Istanbul consulate about defection, was arrested by the Soviets and disappeared forever (possibly executed)
Valeri Tihonovitch MinakovRussia1945Escaped from Siberia across the Bering Sea in a small boat, with his 6 year old son Oleg. He was assisted by Eskimos of Savoonga and Gambell on St. Lawrence Island. Shortly afterward 14 Siberians arrived for "a visit" and questioned inhabitants whether they had seen a "white Russian."[11]
Anatoli GranovskyMGBRussia1946Defected in Stockholm, Sweden and wrote an autobiography
Grigori Tokaty Scientist and politician Ossetia 1947 He secretly worked with an underground opposition group in the USSR. Afraid of his links with them being discovered, he defected to the British Sector of Occupied Berlin, and arrived in Britain in 1947. He later worked in the Information Research Department, helping disseminate anti-communist propaganda.[12]
Jan ČepwriterCzechoslovakia1948Defected to France; Poet friend who stayed behind jailed for 13 years for "anti-socialist thinking"
Nesti Josifi Kopalichief of Albanian security service Sigurimi in RomeAlbania1949Offered himself to the U.S. Embassy in Rome in late 1949, but was rejected, so he turned to Italian Intelligence. After a couple of months of interrogation, he was turned over to the CIA, which flew him to Washington DC for debriefing. Kopali had, among his other anti-western assignments in 1946-47, tried and failed to set up a liaison with the editor of an ethnic newspaper in Boston. In 1950, Kopali provided some valuable information about Albanian security and military matters, but not enough for the U.S. government to offer him political asylum and resettlement in the United States. He was ultimately flown back to Germany.[13]
Alena Vrzáňováfigure skaterCzechoslovakia1950Defected during 1950 World Championships in London, UK
Josef Buršíktank commanderCzechoslovakia1950Escaped from prison to West Germany and later UK. After the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 Buršík returned his Hero of the Soviet Union medal in Soviet embassy in London.
Czesław MiłoszauthorPoland1951Defected to France after serving as a Polish diplomat and later settled in the United States
Istvan RabovskyballetHungary1953Escaped with wife Nora Kovach to West Berlin on an East Berlin tour
Franciszek JareckipilotPoland1953Flew MiG-15 from Słupsk, Poland to Rønne Airport on Danish island of Bornholm
Józef ŚwiatłoUBPoland1953Defected on a mission in East Berlin; He revealed it in broadcasts on Radio Free Europe internal struggle in the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) and the true face of the Security Office (UB). The result of his escape was the liquidation of the Ministry of Security (MBP).
Nikolai KhokhlovKGBRussia1953Refused to assassinate George Okolovich; defected in West Germany and KGB attempted to assassinate him in 1957
Nora KovachballetHungary1953Escaped with husband Istvan Rabovsky to West Berlin on an East Berlin tour
Andrzej PanufnikcomposerPoland1954Slipped Polish secret police in night time taxi chase in Zürich, Switzerland, defected to UK while in London
Peter DeriabinKGB agentRussia1954KGB Major and personnel officer who contacted U.S. intelligence in Vienna and was exfiltrated through the "Mozart Express" military train; worked with CIA for years afterwards
Vladimir PetrovdiplomatRussia1954Defected on a mission in Australia. Started the Petrov Affair
Evdokia PetrovaKGBRussia1954Undercover KGB agent who was the wife of Vladimir Petrov; defected in Australia during the Petrov Affair
Bela BergerchessHungary1956Defected during Hungarian Revolution of 1956 to Australia
Ferenc PuskásfootballHungary1956Defected during the 1956–57 European Cup in Madrid, Spain
Imre Lakatosphilosopher of scienceHungary1956Fled to Vienna, Austria, and later to Britain after the Hungarian Revolution of 1956
Jenő KalmárfootballHungary1956Defected during the 1956–57 European Cup in Madrid, Spain, and then to Switzerland
József MindszentyCardinalHungary1956Fled to U.S. Embassy in Budapest during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956; later moved to Austria
Sándor KocsisfootballHungary1956Defected during the 1956–57 European Cup in Madrid, Spain, and then to Switzerland
Zoltán CziborfootballHungary1956Fled to Spain during Hungarian Revolution of 1956
Ágnes Keletiartistic gymnastHungary1956Defected in Melbourne, Australia, during 1956 Summer Olympics
Christo Javacheffenvironmentalist artistBulgaria1957Escaped from Czechoslovakia to Austria
Reino HäyhänenKGBRussia1957Defected in Paris after spending several years spying undercover in the west
Nicholas Shadrinnaval officerRussia1959Defected in Sweden; later allegedly killed by the KGB
Alexander PetrovichphotographerRussia1960Defected through Iran and India; settled in Tampa, Florida
Anatoliy GolitsynKGBUkraine1961Defected to the United States via Helsinki, Finland, and Haparanda, Sweden, with his wife and daughter when he was stationed in Helsinki; made sensational claims after his defection.
Bohdan StashynskyKGBUkraine1961Defected in West Berlin; assassin of Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera before defection
Conrad SchumannBorder GuardEast Germany1961Photographed jumping the Berlin Wall during construction
Ernst DegnerMotorcycle racerEast Germany1961Defected after the Berlin Wall was erected once he knew that his wife and two children had already escaped from East to West Germany in the trunk of a car. Degner defected (with knowledge of the loop scavenging technique developed for MZ) by driving his car from the Swedish GP to Denmark and West Germany.[14]
Jonas Pleškyssubmarine tender captainLithuania1961Sailed vessel to Sweden; sentenced to death; CIA hid him from USSR.
Michael GoleniewskiSB MSWPoland1961Defected in West Germany; sentenced to death after defection; then worked for the CIA. Before he fled he spied for the CIA under the cover name Sniper, but the CIA did not know his identity until his escape.
Rudolf NureyevballetRussia1961Defected on tour in Paris
Valentin PoénarumathematicianRomania1961Defected at conference in Stockholm, Sweden; known for low-dimensional topology
Petr BeckmannphysicistCzechoslovakia1963Defected as visiting professor to University of Colorado in the United States; became a proponent of libertarianism and nuclear energy
Yuri KrotkovKGBGeorgia1963Defected while an undercover agent in London, UK; later became a novelist
Gabor Balla marksman Hungary 1964 Defected in Tokyo, Japan, during the 1964 Summer Olympics
András Törőflatwater canoeHungary1964Defected in Tokyo, Japan, during the 1964 Summer Olympics
Paul Barbă Neagrăfilm directorRomania1964Defected in Tours, France
Yuri NosenkoKGBUkraine1964Defected in Washington, D.C., United States; for years, the CIA thought he might be a double agent
Michael PolywkafootballEast Germany1966Fled after a match in Sweden; traveled to West Germany
Ivan DivišpoetCzechoslovakia1967Fled after Prague Spring to West Germany and worked for Radio Free Europe
Svetlana AlliluyevaJoseph Stalin's daughterRussia1967Defected to the United States via New Delhi, India; denounced the former regime of her late father Joseph Stalin, but softened her criticism of him in the 1980s[15]
Anatoly KuznetsovauthorUkraine1968Defected after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia while doing research in London to the United Kingdom
Jan ŠejnaGeneralCzechoslovakia1968Fled after Prague Spring to the United States.
Miloš Formanfilm director and actorCzechoslovakia1968Defected to USA when the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies invaded the country to end the Prague Spring; known for One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Vladimir OravskywriterCzechoslovakia1968Fled after Prague Spring to Sweden
Cornel ChiriacjournalistRomania1969Defected to Austria with fake invitation
Georgi MarkovplaywrightBulgaria1969Fled to Italy after ban on plays; assassinated in London in 1978
Jerzy LewichessPoland1969Defected during tournament in Athens, Greece; traveled to Sweden
Ladislav BittmanCzech state security, disinformationCzechoslovakia1969Became a professor at Boston University, lecturing on disinformation and propaganda.
Josef FrolíkCzech state securityCzechoslovakia1969Defected from Bulgaria to Turkey on a boat, moved by the CIA to the United States
Simonas "Simas" KudirkaSoviet seamanLithuania1970Leaped from a Soviet ship to a United States Coast Guard ship
Natalia MakarovaballetRussia1970Defected on ballet tour in London, UK; later won a Tony Award[16]
Yuri BezmenovKGB propaganda agentRussia1970Left India, his KGB station, disguised as a hippie, went to Greece, was debriefed in the United States, but refused to stay in the US because of KGB infiltration of the CIA, and was granted asylum in Canada
Oleg LyalinKGBRussia1971Defected in London, UK, after being arrested in London; exposed dozens of KGB agents in London
Ioan P. CulianuphilosopherRomania1972Defected during lectures in Italy; suspected that Securitate later assassinated him
Alexander ElderauthorRussia1974Jumped from a Soviet ship off the Ivory Coast on which he was working as a doctor; later traveled to the United States
Mikhail BaryshnikovballetLatvia1974Defected during tour in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Paul NevaiMathematicianHungary1974Defected in Paris; immigrated to the USA in 1976
Stanislav KurilovOceanographerUSSR1974While on a "cruise to nowhere" in the open ocean, jumped into the sea and swam to the Philippine coast, many kilometers away
Václav NedomanskýhockeyCzechoslovakia1974Defected during a vacation in Switzerland
Martina NavratilovatennisCzechoslovakia1975Defected at the 1975 US Open in the United States
Jürgen PahlfootballEast Germany1976Fled with Norbert Nachtweih in an under-21 match in Turkey; traveled to West Germany
Norbert NachtweihfootballEast Germany1976Fled with Jürgen Pahl in an under-21 match in Turkey; traveled to West Germany
Viktor BelenkopilotRussia1976Flew a MiG-25 from Chuguyevka, Primorsky Krai, to Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan
Viktor KorchnoichessRussia1976First Soviet Grandmaster to defect; defected following a tournament in Amsterdam, Netherlands[17]
Youri EgorovpianistRussia1976Fled during a tour in Rome, Italy
Vladimir Rezun (Viktor Suvorov)GRU / authorRussia1978GRU military intelligence, defecting to Britain while working under UN cover in Switzerland
Arkady ShevchenkoUN Undersecretary GeneralUkraine1978Spied for the U.S. for three years before defection. His wife in Moscow died two months after his defection, purportedly of suicide.
Kirill KondrashinconductorRussia1978Defected in December 1978 while touring in the Netherlands and sought political asylum there.
Ion Mihai PacepaSecuritateRomania1978Two-star Romanian Securitate general and personal advisor to Nicolae Ceauşescu; defected in the American Embassy in Bonn, West Germany. He was sentenced to death twice in absentia with a $2 million bounty. Carlos the Jackal was sent to assassinate him.
Matei Pavel HaiducuSecuritateRomania1978Defected to France in 1981 on an industrial espionage mission. He was sentenced to death in absentia.
Alexander GodunovballetRussia1979Defected on ballet tour in New York City in JFK International Airport in Queens; later became an actor, including playing one of the terrorists in Die Hard [18]
Werner StillerStasiEast Germany1979Defected to West Germany after stealing state secrets
Jörg BergerfootballEast Germany1979Used a match in Yugoslavia to flee to West Germany
Leonid KozlovballetRussia1979Defected with wife Valentina Kozlov during their company's tour in Los Angeles, United States
Valentina KozlovaballetRussia1979Defected with husband Leonid Kozlov during their company's tour in Los Angeles, United States
Lev AlburtchessRussia1979Soviet chess grandmaster; defected to the USA, where he won the U.S. Chess Championship three times
Ludmila Belousovafigure skaterRussia1979Defected in Switzerland
Lutz EigendorffootballEast Germany1979Fled during a match in West Germany; assassinated by Stasi in 1983 in an incident designed to look like a traffic accident
Oleg Protopopovfigure skaterRussia1979Defected with Ludmila Belousova on tour in Switzerland
Stanislav LevchenkoKGBRussia1979Defected during a mission in Tokyo, Japan; detailed KGB's Japanese spy network
Vladas Česiūnassprint canoeLithuania1979Defected in World Championships in the Frankfurt Airport in West Germany; recaptured by the KGB[19]
Anton ŠťastnýhockeyCzechoslovakia1980Defected with brother Peter during European Cup tournament in Innsbruck, Austria
Igor Vasilyevich IvanovchessRussia1980Ran from KGB agents when his plane made an emergency stop in Gander, Canada
Peter ŠťastnýhockeyCzechoslovakia1980Defected with his wife and brother Anton during European Cup tournament in Innsbruck, Austria
Sulamith MessererballetRussia1980Sister's husband purged; defected to Britain at 72 to coach ballet
Walter Polovchakunderage defectorUkraine1980Fled from his parents when they were about to return to then-Soviet-republic. Granted political asylum as a naturalized U.S. citizen upon turning 18 on October 3, 1985. Was subject of lengthy political cause célèbre during those five years.
Maxim ShostakovichconductorRussia1981Defected on tour in West Germany with his son[20]
Romuald SpasowskiambassadorPoland1981Defected when martial law was declared in 1981.
Ryszard KuklińskiPolish colonelPoland1981Spied for USA for 10 years after 1970 massacre of Polish workers. Defected to United States. Sentenced to death in absentia. Later died of a stroke. Sentence was annulled in 1998 by the Polish Supreme Court.
Vladimir Tismăneanupolitical scientistRomania1981Defected in Spain on a permitted trip with his mother to visit site of father's battles
Clifford Kettemboroughmathematician and computer scientistRomania1982Defected to Turkey and then Austria via Bulgaria before immmigrating to the United States in June 1983
Vladimir KuzichkinKGBRussia1982Defected to a British intelligence Tehran station and then to the United Kingdom
Gega KobakhidzeactorGeorgia1983Hijacked Aeroflot Flight 6833; tried to defect to Turkey and was caught
Falko GötzfootballEast Germany1983Fled before a match in Yugoslavia; traveled to West Germany[21]
Vakhtang JordaniaconductorGeorgia1983Defected in a tour with Victoria Mullova via Kuusamo, Finland, and Haparanda, Sweden, to the United States
Viktoria MullovaviolinistRussia1983Defected in a tour with Vakhtang Jordania via Kuusamo, Finland, and Haparanda, Sweden, to the United States
Oleg BitoveditorRussia1983Foreign editor of Literaturnaya Gazeta; defected in Venice, Italy, to Great Britain[22]
Dariusz JanczewskiTrack and FieldPoland1984Left a hotel room in the middle of the night while in Turin, Italy, at an international track meet; spent several months in a refugee camp in Italy before relocating to the United States
Valdo RandpereDeputy minister of JusticeEstonia1984Defected via Kotka, Finland to Sweden. Fled a Soviet crackdown on Estonian nationalism.
Ivo ZdarskyAviation engineering studentCzechoslovakia1984Defected from Czechoslovakia after he created a homemade aircraft, then flew to Vienna International Airport. Zdarsky then settled in the United States and founded the corporation Ivoprop.
Ladislav Patakisports scientistCzechoslovakia1985Defected to US via Rome, Italy; "the highest-ranking Soviet-bloc sports scientist ever to defect to the West"
Milan ŠvecCzechoslovak Embassy, Washington DCCzechoslovakia1985Defected in Washington, D.C., where he was Minister-Counselor; later became a commentator on East-West relations
Oleg GordievskyKGBRussia1985Defected to UK via Finland; became MI6 double agent after the Soviet 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia; sentenced to death in absentia
Vitaly YurchenkoKGBRussia1985Defected in Rome, Italy; exposed two KGB/CIA double agents, Ronald Pelton and Edward Lee Howard; ended up back in the KGB
Mircea FlorianmusicianRomania1986Defected in the United States on permitted visit for a performance
Frank LippmannfootballEast Germany1986Fled after a match against FC Bayer 05 Uerdingen in the Quarter finals of the 1985–86 European Cup Winners' Cup.
Naim SüleymanoğluweightlifterBulgaria1986Defected during World Cup final in Melbourne, Australia; traveled to Turkey
Vyacheslav PolozovoperaUSSR1986Defected during the Madama Butterfly singing competition in Tokyo, Japan
Mihai SmighelschiAir Force cadetRomania1987Flew his Aero L-39ZA Albatross jet trainer aircraft from Buzau, Romania to near Kirklareli, Turkey, where he landed on a dirt road[23]
Tamás Budaysprint canoeHungary1987Defected to Canada
Mihai SubachessRomania1988Defected to UK during the 1988 Lloyds Bank chess tournament in London
Miodrag BelodedicifootballRomania1988Defected to Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Aleksandr ZuyevpilotRussia1989Flew Mikoyan MiG-29 to Trabzon, Turkey
Alexander MogilnyhockeyRussia1989Defected after World Championships in Sweden
Kalinikos Kreangatable tennisRomania1989Defected in Luxembourg during youth table tennis championship
Mihai Apostolsprint canoeRomania1989-
Nadia ComănecigymnastRomania1989Defected weeks before the Romanian Revolution to Austria
Cristian Raducanurugby union playerRomania1989-
Petr NedvědhockeyCzechoslovakia1989Defected during a midget hockey tournament in Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Vladimir Pasechnikbioweapons engineerRussia1989Defected in Paris, France, to warn the West about the Soviet biological weapons program
Zuo Xiukaimilitary officerChina1989Defected to South Korea from his post at the Joint Security Area[24]
Gorsha Surice dancingRussia1990Defected to the United States while on tour with a Soviet troupe
Sergei FedorovhockeyRussia1990Defected in Seattle, United States, during Goodwill Games
Vitali VitalievauthorUkraine1990Became a regular on BBC TV in the United Kingdom

Defections after 1991
Notable defections after 1991 regarding Eastern Bloc intelligence
Defector Profession/
Prominence		 Birthplace Year Notes
Kanatjan Alibekov bioweapons chief Kazakhstan 1992 Former director of Biopreparat; defected to United States
Stanislav Lunev GRU Russia 1992 Defected to the United States; revealed KGB weapons caches in the west
Vasili Mitrokhin KGB Russia 1992 Defected in Riga, Latvia, to British Embassy; Archivist who was shocked by records of Soviet political repression
Sergei Tretyakov SVR; Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia) Russia 2000 Defected in New York City to CIA.; Deputy Resident Station Chief in New York City; Revealed many political and intelligence secrets from the Russian Federation; sudden death in Sarasota County, Florida, on June 13, 2010; his death has been associated with allegations of foul play

See also

Notes
  1. Dowty 1989, p. 69
  2. Dowty 1989, p. 114
  3. Eastern bloc, The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.
  4. Hirsch, Donald, Joseph F. Kett, James S. Trefil, The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy',' Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002, ISBN 0-618-22647-8, page 230
  5. Dowty 1989, p. 121
  6. Mynz 1995, p. 2.2.1
  7. Senate Chancellery, Governing Mayor of Berlin, The construction of the Berlin Wall Archived 2014-04-02 at the Wayback Machine states "Between 1945 and 1961, around 3.6 million people left the Soviet zone and East Berlin"
  8. Pearson 1998, p. 75
  9. Turnock 1997, p. 19
  10. Krasnov 1985, p. 2
  11. ALASKA magazine June 1971, and July 1972, articles by Frank J. Daugherty
  12. "Professor Grigori Tokaty". The Independent. 2003-11-25. Retrieved 2020-08-26.
  13. G.S. Trice, Specialist/4, Dossier Number H8047134, U.S. Army Investigative Records Repository, 7 March 1974: contains such CIC records of Nesti Josifi Kopali as IDENTIFICATION F-2542 (11 Jan 1952), D-296877 (1 Nov 1951), File II-5092 (14 June 1951 - 18 Sept 1951). While these documents are the only known paperwork available to the public, various government officials active during the early 1950s acknowledged knowing about Kopali and some of his zany behavior.
  14. TEAM SUZUKI by Ray Battersby (2008) Parker House Publishing ISBN 0-9796891-5-5
  15. "Sovietologist Leopold Labedz, who met her in 1968, first noticed it in 1981: "She was getting soft on papochka." Once she had acknowledged Stalin's personal responsibility for the death of millions; now she called him a prisoner of Communist ideology. Her new book contained hardly any criticism of her father. She probably felt she had betrayed him. "My father would have shot me for what I have done", she often said during her final year in Britain." Patricia Blake, Time, 28 January 1985
  16. Natalia Makarova Dances Again With the Kirov. The New York Times, August 8, 1988
  17. Raymond Keene. Viktor Korchnoi: Fearless Competitor of World Chess. Archived 2007-10-29 at the Wayback Machine Chessville.com
  18. Turmoil on the Tarmac. TIME Magazine, September 3, 1979
  19. KGB Kidnapping. TIME Magazine, October 22, 1979
  20. Russians Call Defection Of Shostakovich 'Personal'. The New York Times, April 28, 1981
  21. Dirk Schlegel and Falko Götz: The East Berlin footballers who fled from the Stasi, BBC Sport, 5 November 2019
  22. "A Soviet Defector Is Granted Permission to Stay in Britain". The New York Times. Associated Press. October 26, 1983. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  23. "Evadare din comunism cu avionul de vânătoare". adevarul.ro. Retrieved 2018-09-21.
  24. "Chinese Army Major Defects To South Korea With His Wife". The New York Times. July 30, 1989.

References
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  • Council of Europe (1992), People on the move: new migration flows in Europe, Council of Europe, ISBN 92-871-2021-8
  • Dowty, Alan (1989), Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-04498-4
  • Dowty, Alan (1988), "The Assault on Freedom of Emigration", World Affairs, 151 (2)
  • Krasnov, Vladislav (1985), Soviet Defectors: The KGB Wanted List, Hoover Institution Press, ISBN 0-8179-8231-0
  • Mynz, Rainer (1995), Where Did They All Come From? Typology and Geography of European Mass Migration In the Twentieth Century; EUROPEAN POPULATION CONFERENCE CONGRESS EUROPEAN DE DEMOGRAPHE, United Nations Population Division
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