Languages of China

The spoken languages of nationalities that are a part of the People's Republic of China belong to at least nine families:

Ethnolinguistic map of China

• The Sino-Tibetan family: 19 official ethnicities (including the Han and Tibetans)
• The Tai–Kadai family: several languages spoken by the Zhuang, the Bouyei, the Dai, the Dong, and the Hlai (Li people). 9 official ethnicities.
• The Hmong–Mien family: 3 official ethnicities
• The Austroasiatic family: 4 official ethnicities (the De'ang, Blang, Gin (Vietnamese), and Wa)
• The Turkic family: Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Salars, etc. 7 official ethnicities.[10]
• The Mongolic family: Mongols, Dongxiang, and related groups. 6 official ethnicities.[10]
• The Tungusic family: Manchus (formerly), Hezhe, etc. 5 official ethnicities.
• The Koreanic family: Korean language
• The Indo-European family: 2 official ethnicities (the Russians and Tajiks (actually Pamiri people). There is also a heavily Persian-influenced Äynu language spoken by the Äynu people in southwestern Xinjiang who are officially considered Uyghurs.
• The Austronesian family: 1 official ethnicity (the Gaoshan, who speak many languages of the Formosan branch), 1 unofficial (the Utsuls, who speak the Tsat language but are considered Hui.)

Below are lists of ethnic groups in China by linguistic classification. Ethnicities not on the official PRC list of 56 ethnic groups are italicized. Respective Pinyin transliterations and Chinese characters (both simplified and traditional) are also given.

The first page of the astronomy section of the 御製五體清文鑑 Yuzhi Wuti Qing Wenjian. The work contains four terms on each of its pages, arranged in the order of Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chagatai, and Chinese languages. For the Tibetan, it includes both transliteration and a transcription into the Manchu alphabet. For the Chagatai, it includes a line of transcription into the Manchu alphabet.

The following languages traditionally had written forms that do not involve Chinese characters (hanzi):

• The Dai – Tai Lü language or Tai Nüa language – Tai Lü alphabet or Tai Nüa alphabet
• The Kazakhs – Kazakh language – Kazakh Arabic alphabet
• The Koreans – Korean language – Chosŏn'gŭl alphabet
• The Kyrgyz – Kyrgyz language – Kyrgyz Arabic alphabet
• The Manchus – Manchu language – Manchu alphabet
• The Mongols – Mongolian language – Mongolian alphabet
• The Naxi – Naxi language – Dongba characters
• The Sui – Sui language – Sui script
• The Tibetans – Tibetan language – Tibetan alphabet
• The Uyghurs – Uyghur language – Uyghur Arabic alphabet
• The Xibe – Xibe language – Manchu alphabet
• The Yi – Yi language – Yi syllabary

Many modern forms of spoken Chinese languages have their own distinct writing system using Chinese characters that contain colloquial variants. These typically are used as sound characters to help determine the pronunciation of the sentence within that language:

• Written Cantonese
• Chữ nôm – Vietnamese
• Written Hokkien
• Shanghainese

Some formerly have used Chinese characters

• The Jurchens (Manchu ancestors) – Jurchen language – Jurchen script
• The Koreans – Korean language – Hanja
• The Khitans (Mongolic people) – Khitan language – Khitan large and small scripts
• The Tanguts (Sino-Tibetan people) – Tangut language – Tangut script
• The Zhuang (Tai people) – Zhuang languages – Sawndip

During Qing dynasty, palaces, temples, and coins have sometimes been inscribed in five scripts:

• Chinese
• Manchu
• Mongol
• Tibetan
• Chagatai

During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the official writing system was:

• 'Phags-pa script

The reverse of a one jiao note with Chinese (Pinyin) at the top and Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang along the bottom.

Chinese banknotes contain several scripts in addition to Chinese script. These are:

• Mongol
• Tibetan
• Arabic (for Uyghur)
• Latin (for Zhuang)

Other writing system for Chinese languages in China include:

• Nüshu script

Ten nationalities who never had a written system have, under the PRC's encouragement, developed phonetic alphabets. According to a government white paper published in early 2005, "by the end of 2003, 22 ethnic minorities in China used 28 written languages."

One decade before the demise of the Qing dynasty, Mandarin was promoted in the planning for China's first public school system.[9]

Mandarin has been promoted as the commonly spoken language since 1956, based phonologically on the dialect of Beijing. North Chinese language group is set up as the standard grammatically and lexically. Meanwhile, Mao Tse-Tung and Lu-Hsün writings are used as the basis of the stylistic standard.[9] Pronunciation is taught with the use of the romanized phonetic system known as pinyin. Pinyin has been criticized for fear of an eventual replacement of the traditional character orthography.[9]

The Chinese language policy in mainland China is heavily influenced by the Soviet nationalities policy and officially encourages the development of standard spoken and written languages for each of the nationalities of China.[9] Language is one of the features used for ethnic identification.[11] In September 1951, the All-China Minorities Education Conference stablished that all minorities should be taught in their language at the primary and secondary levels when they count with a writting language. Those without a writting language or with an "imperfect" writting language should be helped to develop and reform their writting languages.[11]

However, in this schema, Han Chinese are considered a single nationality and the official policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC) treats the different varieties of Chinese differently from the different national languages, even though their differences are as significant, if not more so, as those between the various Romance languages of Europe. While official policies in mainland China encourage the development and use of different orthographies for the national languages and their use in educational and academic settings, realistically speaking it would seem that, as elsewhere in the world, the outlook for minority languages perceived as inferior is grim.[12] The Tibetan Government-in-Exile argue that social pressures and political efforts result in a policy of sinicization and feels that Beijing should promote the Tibetan language more. Because many languages exist in China, they also have problems regarding diglossia. Recently, in terms of Fishman's typology of the relationships between bilingualism and diglossia and his taxonomy of diglossia (Fishman 1978, 1980) in China: more and more minority communities have been evolving from "diglossia without bilingualism" to "bilingualism without diglossia." This could be an implication of mainland China's power expanding.[13]

In 2010, Tibetan students protested against changes in the Language Policy on the schools that promoted the use of Mandarin Chinese instead of Tibetan. They argued that the measure would erode their culture.[14] In 2013, China's Education Ministry said that about 400 million people were unable to speak the national language Mandarin. In that year, the government pushed linguistic unity in China, focusing on the countryside and areas with ethnic minorities.[15]

Mandarin Chinese is the prestige language in practice, and failure to protect ethnic languages does occur. In summer 2020, the Inner Mongolian government announced an education policy change to phase out Mongolian as the language of instructions for humanities in elementary and middle schools, adopting the national instruction material instead. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protested the policy.[16] The Ministry of Education describes the move as a natural extension of the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Chinese: 通用语言文字法) of 2000.[17]

English has been the most widely-taught foreign language in China, as it is a required subject for students attending university.[18][19] Other languages that have gained some degree of prevalence or interest are Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian.[20][21][22] During the 1950s and 1960s, Russian had some social status among elites in mainland China as the international language of socialism.

In the late 1960s, English replaced the position of Russian to become the most studied foreign language in China. After the Reform and Opening-up policy in 1988, English was taught in public schools starting in the third year of primary school.[1][2]

Russian, French, and German language classes have been made widely available in universities and colleges.[23] In Northeast China, there are many bilingual schools (Mandarin-Japanese; Mandarin-Korean; Mandarin-Russian), in these schools, students learn languages other than English.

The Economist, issue April 12, 2006, reported that up to one fifth of the population was learning English. Gordon Brown, the former British Prime Minister, estimated that the total English-speaking population in China would outnumber the native speakers in the rest of the world in two decades.[24]

There have been a growing number of students studying Arabic, due to reasons of cultural interest and belief in better job opportunities.[25] The language is also widely studied amongst the Hui people.[26] In the past, literary Arabic education was promoted in Islamic schools by the Kuomintang when it ruled mainland China.[27]

There have also been a growing number of students choosing to learn Urdu, due to interest in Pakistani culture, close ties between the respective nations, and job opportunities provided by the CPEC.[28]

Interest in Portuguese and Spanish have increased greatly, due in part to Chinese investment in Latin America as well as in African nations such as Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde. Portuguese is also one of the official languages in Macau, although its use had stagnated since the nation's transfer from Portugal to the PRC. It was estimated in 2016 that 2.3% of Macau's locals spoke the language,[29][30] although with government backing since then, interest in it has increased.[31]

• Language Atlas of China
• Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
• Varieties of Chinese
• List of varieties of Chinese
• Han Chinese subgroups
• Demographics of the People's Republic of China
• Ethnic issues in China
• Hong Kong English
• Languages of Hong Kong
• Languages of Macau
• Macanese Portuguese
• Nationalities of China
• Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages
• Cantonese
• Standard Chinese
• Chinglish

•  This article incorporates text from Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8, by James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray, a publication from 1916, now in the public domain in the United States.
•  This article incorporates text from Burma past and present, by Albert Fytche, a publication from 1878, now in the public domain in the United States.

• Kane, D. (2006). The Chinese language: its history and current usage. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. ISBN 0-8048-3853-4
• Halliday, M. A. K., & Webster, J. (2005). Studies in Chinese language. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-5874-2
• Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China (illustrated, reprint ed.). N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691014685. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
• Hong, B. (1978). Chinese language use. Canberra: Contemporary China Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-909596-29-8
• Cheng, C. C., & Lehmann, W. P. (1975). Language & linguistics in the People's Republic of China. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74615-6

• 民族语文 (Minzu Yuwen): Minority Languages of China journal
• Linguistic maps of China on Muturzikin.com
• Audio Bible recordings in various minority languages of China