East Asian cultural sphere

The East Asian cultural sphere, Chinese cultural sphere or Sinosphere (alternatively called Sinic/Sinitic world, Confucian world, Taoist world or Chinese character cultural sphere) encompasses the countries within North, East and Southeast Asia that were influenced by Chinese culture both historically and present. The region is not to be confused with Greater China, a region that encompasses countries with majority Han Chinese or Chinese-speaking populations.[1]

"East Asian mythology" redirects here. For a list of Asian mythologies, see List of Asian mythologies.
"Sinosphere" redirects here. For other uses, see Sinosphere (disambiguation).

East Asian cultural sphere
Sinosphere
East and Southeast Asia
Sinicized KingdomsBaekje, Goryeo, Joseon, Kamakura, Lanfang, Silla, Vietnam
Transmission of Han BuddhismBhutan, China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Malaysia, Singapore, Tibet, Vietnam
Central Asia and the Caucasus
Buddhist monasticismAfghanistan, Kalmykia, Uzbekistan
Greater China  · Buddhist texts  · Folklore of China
East Asian cultural sphere
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese東亞文化圈
漢字文化圈
Simplified Chinese东亚文化圈
汉字文化圈
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetVùng văn hóa Đông Á
Vùng văn hóa chữ Hán
Đông Á văn hóa quyển
Hán tự văn hóa quyển
Hán-Nôm塳文化東亞
塳文化𡨸漢
東亞文化圈
漢字文化圈
Korean name
Hangul동아문화권
한자문화권
Hanja東亞文化圈
漢字文化圈
Japanese name
Kanji東亜文化圏
漢字文化圏
Hiraganaとうあぶんかけん
かんじぶんかけん
"Chinese character (Hànzì) cultural sphere" and "East Asia Cultural sphere" written in Japanese, Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese.
  in Loanwords, only word Asia
  in native words
Chinese dragons are legendary creatures in East Asian mythology and culture.

The principal culture of the East Asian cultural sphere is Chinese culture, with Japanese culture, Korean culture and Vietnamese culture lying on the peripheries. In particular, Japan, Korea and Vietnam were prominent tributary states of China from the 14th to 19th centuries following extensive prior interactions, and the regions directly south of China, now most commonly known as Southeast Asia, was referred to as Nanyang ("southern ocean").[2] Shared features of countries within the East Asian cultural sphere include their philosophies, beliefs, religions, political structures, social institutions, laws, rituals, military doctrines, medicine, science, literature, art, cuisine, architecture and so on. Common belief systems throughout the region include Confucianism, Buddhism (especially East Asian Buddhism) and Taoism.[1] The process of adopting elements of Chinese culture is called Sinicization.

The Classical Chinese language, a logographic script originating from ancient China, became an early regional lingua franca in the written form and, as such, was a major facilitator of cultural exchange throughout the region up until the early 20th century. Other important language scripts of the region include Katakana from Japan, Hangul from Korea, and to a lesser extent, Chữ Nôm from Vietnam.[3] Japan, Korea and Vietnam also exerted their own influence onto Chinese culture, transforming both the Chinese language as well as the concepts it entailed.[4][5] These countries not only received Chinese culture, but actively participated in the creative process of cultural interaction, exchange, and reinvention.[1]

The historical prevalence of Chinese traditions and practices has extended to other countries outside of those aforementioned. Regional overseas Chinese communities have played an important role in spreading Chinese culture throughout South and Southeast Asian nations such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand throughout the 18th–20th centuries. Examples include the spread of Chinese architecture throughout the region, as well as the extent of Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia.[6][7][8][9][10] Recent waves of Chinese migrants have led to the emergence of large contemporary Han Chinese communities in numerous major cities throughout these countries, notably Sihanoukville in Cambodia, the Malaysian cities of George Town in Penang, Malacca City in Malacca as well as its capital Kuala Lumpur, and Mandalay in Myanmar.[11][12] Furthermore, places such as Singapore are Chinese-majority countries, largely settling between the 15th and 17th centuries, where they are also known as the Peranakans or Straits Chinese.

The concept of the East Asian cultural sphere is comparable to conceptions of the Arab world, Greater India, Greater Iran, Latin world, Turkic world, Western world and so on where a multitude of peoples or countries share a number of cultural, linguistic and religious similarities due to proximity or shared history.

Terminology

China is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration of original Han settlers from the Yellow River generally regarded as the starting point of the East Asian world. Today, its population is approximately 1.43 billion.

Japanese historian Nishijima Sadao (1919–1998), professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, originally coined the term Tōa bunka-ken (東亜文化圏, 'East Asian Cultural Area'), conceiving of a Chinese or East-Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the west. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, stretching from areas between Mongolia and the Himalayas—shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures.[13]

Etymology

Sometimes used as a synonym for the East-Asian cultural sphere, the term Sinosphere derives from Sino- ('China, Chinese') and -sphere, in the sense of a sphere of influence (i.e., an area influenced by a country). (cf. Sinophone.)

As cognates of each other, the "CJKV" languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese—translate the English term sphere as:

  • Chinese: quān (圈, 'circle, ring, corral, pen')[1]
  • Japanese: ken (圏けん, 'sphere, circle, range, radius')[1]
  • Korean: gwon (권)[1]
  • Vietnamese: quyển / khuyên[1]

Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these "culture sphere" terms.[14] The Chinese wénhuà quān (文化圈) dates back to a 1941 translation for the German term Kulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologists Fritz Graebner and Wilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historian Nishijima Sadao coined the expressions Kanji bunka ken (漢字文化圏, "Chinese-character culture sphere") and Chuka bunka ken (中華文化圏, "Chinese culture sphere"), which China later re-borrowed as loanwords. Nishijima devised these Sinitic "cultural spheres" within his Theory of an East Asian World (東アジア世界論, Higashi Ajia sekai-ron).[1]

Chinese–English dictionaries provide similar translations of this keyword wénhuà quān (文化圈) as "the intellectual or literary circles" (Liang Shiqiu 1975) and "literary, educational circles" (Lin Yutang 1972).

The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous to Ancient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In the 1930s in A Study of History, the Sinosphere along with the Western, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, Indic, etc. civilizations is presented as among the major "units of study."[15]

Comparisons with the West

British historian Arnold J. Toynbee listed the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his book, A Study of History. He included Japan and Korea in his definition of "Far Eastern civilization" and proposed that they grew out of the "Sinic civilization" that originated in the Yellow River basin.[16] Toynbee compared the relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilization with that of the Hellenic and Western civilizations, which had an "apparentation-affiliation."[17]

American Sinologist and historian Edwin O. Reischauer also grouped China, Korea, and Japan into a cultural sphere that he called the Sinic world, a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in Northern China, comparing the relationship between Northern China and East Asia to that of Greco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin had functioned in Europe.[18]

American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington considered the Sinic world as one of many civilizations in his book The Clash of Civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations one succeeding the other in the early centuries of the Christian epoch."[19] Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[20] Japan is not included. Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity.[21] Huntington's theory was that in a post-Cold War world, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations."[22][23]

Culture
Imperial City, Hue, Vietnam. Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the East Asian architectural styles of Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.

Arts

Cuisine
Main article: East Asian cuisine
See also: Chinese cuisine, List of Chinese dishes, Vietnamese cuisine, Japanese cuisine, and Korean cuisine

The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques. Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries. The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.[25]

Rice (米飯; mǐfàn) is a main staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus of food security.[26] Moreover, in East Asian countries, the word for 'cooked rice' (飯; fàn) can embody the meaning of food in general.[25]

Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include kimchi (泡菜; pàocài), sushi (壽司; shòusī), hot pot (火鍋; huǒguō), tea (茶; chá), dumplings (餃子; jiǎozi), dimsum (點心; diǎnxīn), noodles (麵; miàn) / ramen, as well as phở, sashimi, wasabi, udon, among others.[27]

Traditions

Literature
Main article: Adoption of Chinese literary culture

East-Asian literary culture is based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region.[30] Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.[29]

Throughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[31] Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively into the local vernaculars, and today comprise over half their vocabularies.[32]

Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier, woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy the Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metal movable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.[33]

Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origin which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modern Sinology.[34]

Philosophy and religion
Main articles: East Asian religions and East Asian philosophies

The Art of War, Tao Te Ching, and Analects are classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history.

Taoism
Main article: Taoism

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam have been influenced by Taoism.[35] It is also called as Onmyōdō in Japan.

Shintoism
Two women praying in front of a Japanese Shinto shrine.
Main article: Shintoism

Shintoism is the ethnic religion of Japan, where shinto means 'Way of the Gods'. Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values.[36]

Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life.[37] Shrines have a significant in Shinto, being places for the veneration of the kami (gods or spirits).[38] 'Folk' or 'popular' Shinto features an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. 'Sect' Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shinto schools.[39]

Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism, particular to East Asian religion.
Main article: East Asian Buddhism

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a history of Mahayana Buddhism. It spread from India via the Silk Road through Pakistan, Xinjiang, eastward through Southeast Asia, Vietnam, then north through Guangzhou and Fujian. From China, it proliferated to Korea and Japan, especially during the Tang dynasty, especially through Kukai. It could have also re-spread from China south to Vietnam. East Asia is now home to the largest Buddhist population in the world at around 200-400 million.

Confucianism
Confucianism plays a crucial part in East Asian culture.
Temple of Literature, Hanoi. Confucian education and imperial examinations played a huge role in creating scholars and mandarins (bureaucrats) for East-Asian dynasties.
Main article: Confucianism

The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview.[18] Confucianism is a humanistic[40] philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:[41]

  • rén (仁): an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals;
  • yì (义/義): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good; and
  • lǐ (礼/禮): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life.

Neo-Confucianism
Main article: Neo-Confucianism

Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development of Neo-Confucianism. During the Tang dynasty, Buddhism from Nepal also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholar Han Yu is seen as a forebear of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.[42] The Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[43]

Elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similar to Japan, in Korean philosophy elements of Shamanism were integrated into the Neo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism was developed into Vietnamese own Tam giáo as well, along with indigenous Vietnamese beliefs and Mahayana Buddhism.

Other religions

Though not commonly identified with that of East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history:

  1. Hinduism, see Hinduism in Vietnam, Hinduism in China
  2. Islam, Muslims in China, Islam in Hong Kong, Islam in Japan, Islam in Korea, Islam in Vietnam.
  3. Christianity, one of the most popular religions in South Korea and Singapore and after Buddhism. Significant Christian communities also found in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Taiwan and Vietnam.[44]

Language

Historical linguistics

Various languages are thought to have originated in East Asia and have various degrees of influence on each other. These include:

  1. Sino-Tibetan: Spoken mainly in China, Myanmar, Bhutan, Northeast India and parts of Nepal. Major Sino-Tibetan languages include the varieties of Chinese, the Tibetic languages and Burmese. They are thought to have originated around the Yellow River north of the Yangzi.[45][46]
  2. Austronesian: Spoken mainly in Taiwan, Indonesia, Madagascar, and the Pacific Islands. Major Austronesian languages include Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Javanese, and Filipino (Tagalog).
  3. Turkic: Spoken mainly in China, Russia, Central Asia, Turkey and Azerbaijan. Major Turkic languages include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Uzbek and Uyghur.[47][48][49]
  4. Austroasiatic: Spoken mainly in Vietnam and Cambodia. Major Austroasiatic languages include Vietnamese and Khmer.
  5. Kra-Dai: Spoken mainly in Thailand, Laos, and parts of Southern China. Major Kra-Dai languages include Thai and Lao.
  6. Mongolic: Spoken mainly in Mongolia, China and Russia. Major Mongolian languages include Mongolian, Monguor, Dongxiang and Buryat.
  7. Tungusic: Spoken mainly in Siberia and China. Major Tungusic languages include Evenki, Manchu, and Xibe.
  8. Koreanic: Spoken mainly in Korea. Major Korean languages include Korean, and Jeju.
  9. Japonic: Spoken mainly in Japan and Palau. Major Japonic languages include Japanese, Ryukyuan and Hachijo.
  10. Ainu language: Spoken mainly in Japan and considered an isolate.

The core Languages of the East Asian Cultural Sphere generally include the varieties of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. All of these languages have a well-documented history of having historically used Chinese characters, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese all having roughly 60% of their vocabulary stemming from Chinese.[50][51][52] There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages such as Zhuang and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked since neither have their own country or heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in hanzi inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages as well.[53]

While other languages have been impacted by the Sinosphere such as the Thai with its Thai numeral system and Mongolian with its historical use of hanzi: the amount of Chinese vocabulary overall is not nearly as expansive in these languages as the core CJKV, or even Zhuang and Hmong.

Various hypotheses are trying to unify various subsets of the above languages, including the Sino-Austronesian, Austric and Altaic language groupings.

Writing systems
Writing systems around the world

East Asia is quite diverse in writing systems, from the Brahmic, inspired abugidas of SEA, the logographic hanzi of China, the syllabaries of Japan, and various alphabets and abjads used in Korea (Hangul), Mongolia (Cyrillic), Vietnam (Latin), Indonesia (Latin), etc.

Writing systems of East Asia
Writing system Regions
Logograms 漢字 Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam*, Taiwan
Syllabary (かな, kana) Japan
Alphabet (Latin) Singapore (Singapore English), Vietnam
Alphabet (한글, hangul) Korea
Alphabet (Tâi-lô Latin script for Taiwanese Hokkien language) Taiwan
Abugidas (Brahmic scripts of Indian origin) Bhutan, China (Tibet, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture)
Alphabet (Cyrillic) Mongolia (though there is movement to switch back to Mongolian script)[54]
Alphabet (Mongolian) Mongolia*, China (Inner Mongolia)
Abjad China (Xinjiang)
* Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially.

Character influences
Development of kana from Chinese characters
Countries where Chinese characters are/were used
Main article: Chinese characters

Hanzi (漢字 or 汉字) is considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have used Chinese characters. Today, they are mainly used in China, Japan, Korea and Singapore albeit in different forms. Vietnam now mostly use the Latin script, a consequence of colonization.

Mainland China, Malaysia and Singapore uses simplified characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use traditional.

Japan still uses kanji but has also invented kana, believed to be inspired by the Brahmic scripts of southern Asia.

Korea used to write in hanja but has invented an alphabetic system called hangul (also inspired by Chinese and phags-pa during the Mongol Empire) that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is a required subject in South Korea. Names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law; areas where a lot of scholarly terms and Sino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.

Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán or Classical Chinese. Since the 8th century they began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. However, Chinese characters still hold a special place in the cultures as their history and literature have been greatly influenced by Chinese characters. In Vietnam (and North Korea), hanzi can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments today, as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design. And there are movements to restore Hán Nôm in Vietnam. (Also see History of writing in Vietnam.)

Zhuang are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their characters called Sawndip (Immature characters or native characters). Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but in 1957, the People's Republic of China introduced an alphabetical script for the language, which is what it officially promotes.[55]

Economy and trade

Before European imperialism, East Asia has always been one of the largest economies in the world, whose output had mostly been driven by China and the Silk Road.[56] During the Industrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power starting with the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.[57] Japan's early industrial economy reached its height in World War II (1939-1945) when it expanded its empire and became a major world power.

The business cultures within the Sinosphere in some ways are heavily influenced by Chinese culture. Important in China is the social concept of guanxi (關係), which has influenced the societies of Korea, Vietnam and Japan as well.[58] Japan often features hierarchically-organized companies, and Japanese work environments place a high value on interpersonal relationships.[56] Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around a patriarchal family governed by filial piety (孝順) between management and a company's employees.[58]

Post-WW2 (Tiger economies)

Following Japanese defeat, economic collapse after the war, and US military occupation, Japan's economy recovered in the 1950s with the post-war economic miracle in which rapid growth propelled the country to become the world's second-largest economy by the 1980s.

Since the Korean War and again under US military occupation, South Korea has experienced its postwar economic miracle called the Miracle on the Han River, with the rise of global tech industry leaders like Samsung, LG, etc. As of 2019 its economy is the 4th largest in Asia and the 11th largest in the world.

Hong Kong became one of the Four Asian Tiger economies, developing strong textile and manufacturing economies.[59] South Korea followed a similar route, developing the textile industry.[59] Following in the footsteps of Hong Kong and Korea, Taiwan and Singapore quickly industrialized through government policies. By 1997, all four of the Asian Tiger economies had joined Japan as economically developed nations.[59]

As of 2019, South Korean and Japanese growth have stagnated (see also Lost Decade), and present growth in East Asia has now shifted to China and to the Tiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia.[60][61][62][63]

Modern era

Since the Chinese economic reform, China has become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP). The Pearl River Delta is one of the top startup regions (comparable with Beijing and Shanghai) in East Asia, featuring some of the world's top drone companies, such as DJI.

Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China, and many Chinese-Vietnamese speak both Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities. Vietnam, one of Next Eleven countries as of 2005, is regarded as a rising economic power in Southeast Asia.[64]

East Asia participates in numerous global economic organizations including:

See also

References

Citations
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