Pornography

Pornography (often shortened to porn) is the portrayal of sexual subject matter for the exclusive purpose of sexual arousal.[1] Pornography may be presented in a variety of media, including magazines, animation, writing, film, video, and video games. The term does not include live exhibitions like sex shows and striptease. The primary subjects of present-day pornographic depictions are pornographic models, who pose for still photographs, and pornographic actors who engage in filmed sex acts.

"Porn" redirects here. For other uses, see Porn (disambiguation) and Pornography (disambiguation).

"XXX" is often used to designate pornographic material.

Various groups within society have considered depictions of a sexual nature immoral, addictive, and noxious, labeling them pornographic, and attempting to have them suppressed under obscenity laws, censored or made illegal. Such grounds, and even the definition of pornography, have differed in various historical, cultural, and national contexts.[2] Social attitudes towards the discussion and presentation of sexuality have become more tolerant in Western countries, and legal definitions of obscenity have become more limited, beginning in 1969 with Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sexual intercourse to receive wide theatrical release in the United States. It was followed by the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984), in which the best quality pornographic films became part of mainstream culture.[3][4][5]

A growing industry for the production and consumption of pornography developed in the latter half of the 20th century. The introduction of home video and the Internet saw a boom in the worldwide porn industry that generates billions of dollars annually.[6] Commercialized pornography accounts for over US$2.5 billion in the United States alone,[7] including the production of various media and associated products and services. The porn industry is between $10–$12 billion in the U.S.[8] In 2006, the world pornography revenue was 97 billion dollars.[9] This industry employs thousands of performers along with support and production staff. It is also followed by dedicated industry publications and trade groups, award shows, as well as the mainstream press, private organizations (watchdog groups), government agencies, and political organizations.[10] Videos involving non-consensual content and cybersex trafficking have been hosted on popular pornography sites in the 21st century.[11][12][13][14]

Etymology

The word pornography was coined from the ancient Greek words πόρνη (pórnē "prostitute" and πορνεία porneía "prostitution"[15]), and γράφειν (gráphein "to write or to record", derived meaning "illustration", as in "graph"), and the suffix -ία (-ia, meaning "state of", "property of", or "place of"), thus meaning "a written description or illustration of prostitutes or prostitution". No date is known for the first use of the word in Greek; the earliest attested, most related word one could find in Greek, is πορνογράφος, pornográphos, i.e. "someone writing about harlots", in the Deipnosophists of Athenaeus.[16][17] The Modern Greek word pornographia (πορνογραφία) is a reborrowing of the French pornographie.[18]

"Pornographie" was in use in the French language during the 1800s. The word did not enter the English language as the familiar word until 1857[19] or as a French import in New Orleans in 1842.[20] The word was originally introduced by classical scholars as "a bookish, and therefore nonoffensive, term for writing about prostitutes",[21] but its meaning was quickly expanded to include all forms of "objectionable or obscene material in art and literature".[21] As early as 1864, Webster's Dictionary defined the word bluntly as "a licentious painting".[21] The more inclusive word erotica, sometimes used as a synonym for "pornography", is derived from the feminine form of the ancient Greek adjective ἐρωτικός (erōtikós), derived from ἔρως (érōs), which refers to lust and sexual love.[21]

Pornography is often abbreviated to porn or porno in informal language.

For the term in horror films, see torture porn.

History
Further information: History of erotic depictions
Erotic scene on the rim of an Attic red-figure kylix, c. 510 BC.

Depictions of a sexual nature have existed since prehistoric times, as seen in the Venus figurines and rock art.[22] A vast number of artifacts have been discovered from ancient Mesopotamia depicting explicit heterosexual sex.[23][24]

Glyptic art from the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period frequently shows scenes of frontal sex in the missionary position.[23] In Mesopotamian votive plaques from the early second millennium BC, the man is usually shown entering the woman from behind while she bends over, drinking beer through a straw.[23] Middle Assyrian lead votive figurines often represent the man standing and penetrating the woman as she rests on top of an altar.[23] Scholars have traditionally interpreted all these depictions as scenes of ritual sex,[23] but they are more likely to be associated with the cult of Inanna, the goddess of sex and prostitution.[23] Many sexually explicit images were found in the temple of Inanna at Assur,[23] which also contained models of male and female sexual organs.[23]

Depictions of sexual intercourse were not part of the general repertory of ancient Egyptian formal art,[25] but rudimentary sketches of heterosexual intercourse have been found on pottery fragments and in graffiti.[25] The final two thirds of the Turin Erotic Papyrus (Papyrus 55001), an Egyptian papyrus scroll discovered at Deir el-Medina,[26][25] consist of a series of twelve vignettes showing men and women in various sexual positions.[26] The scroll was probably painted in the Ramesside period (1292–1075 BC)[26] and its high artistic quality indicates that it was produced for a wealthy audience.[26] No other similar scrolls have yet been discovered.[25]

Oil lamp artifact depicting the doggy style sexual position

Fanny Hill (1748) is considered "the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel."[27] It is an erotic novel by John Cleland first published in England as Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure.[28][29] It is one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history.[30] The authors were charged with "corrupting the King's subjects."

When large-scale excavations of Pompeii were undertaken in the 1860s, much of the erotic art of the Romans came to light, shocking the Victorians who saw themselves as the intellectual heirs of the Roman Empire. They did not know what to do with the frank depictions of sexuality and endeavored to hide them away from everyone but upper-class scholars. The moveable objects were locked away in the Secret Museum in Naples and what could not be removed was covered and cordoned off as to not corrupt the sensibilities of women, children, and the working classes.[31]

After the modern invention of photography, photographic pornography was also born. The parisian demimonde included Napoleon III's minister, Charles de Morny, who was an early patron that displayed photos at large gatherings.[32]

The world's first law criminalizing pornography was the English Obscene Publications Act 1857 enacted at the urging of the Society for the Suppression of Vice.[33] The Act, which applied to the United Kingdom and Ireland, made the sale of obscene material a statutory offence, giving the courts power to seize and destroy offending material. The American equivalent was the Comstock Act of 1873[34][35] which made it illegal to send any "obscene, lewd, and/or lascivious" materials through the mail. The English Act did not apply to Scotland, where the common law continued to apply. However, neither the English nor the United States Act defined what constituted "obscene", leaving this for the courts to determine.

Before the English Act, the publication of obscene material was treated as a common law misdemeanour[36] and effectively prosecuting authors and publishers was difficult even in cases where the material was clearly intended as pornography. Although nineteenth-century legislation eventually outlawed the publication, retail, and trafficking of certain writings and images regarded as pornographic and would order the destruction of shop and warehouse stock meant for sale, the private possession of and viewing of (some forms of) pornography was not made an offence until the twentieth century.[37]

Historians have explored the role of pornography in social history and the history of morality.[38] The Victorian attitude that pornography was for a select few can be seen in the wording of the Hicklin test stemming from a court case in 1868 where it asks, "whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences." Although they were suppressed, depictions of erotic imagery were common throughout history.[39]

Pornographic film production commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture in 1895. Two of the earliest pioneers were Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner directed the earliest surviving pornographic film for Pirou under the trade name "Léar". The 1896 film Le Coucher de la Mariée showed Louise Willy performing a striptease. Pirou's film inspired a genre of risqué French films showing women disrobing and other filmmakers realised profits could be made from such films.[40][41]

Marquee at Pilgrim Theatre on Washington Street showing Dr. Sex (1964)

Sexually explicit films opened producers and distributors to prosecution. Such films were produced illicitly by amateurs, starting in the 1920s, primarily in France and the United States. Processing the film was risky as was their distribution. Distribution was strictly private.[42][43] In 1969, Denmark became the first country to abolish censorship, thereby decriminalizing pornography, which led to an explosion in investment and of commercially produced pornography. However, it continued to be banned in other countries, and had to be smuggled in, where it was sold "under the counter" or (sometimes) shown in "members only" cinema clubs.[42] Nonetheless, and also in 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, was the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sexual intercourse to receive wide theatrical release in the United States.[3][4][5] The film was a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn and, according to Warhol, a major influence in the making of Last Tango in Paris, an internationally controversial erotic drama film, starring Marlon Brando, and released a few years after Blue Movie was made.[4]

A selection of pornographic magazines confiscated by customs authorities in 1969.
Two porn actors preparing to shoot a scene for an adult film.

Data from 2015 suggests an increase in pornography viewing over the past few decades, and this has been attributed to the growth of Internet pornography since widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s.[44] Through the 2010s, many pornographic production companies and top pornographic websites[45] – such as PornHub, RedTube and YouPorn – were acquired by MindGeek, which has been described as "a monopoly".[46]

The scholarly study of pornography, notably in cultural studies, is limited, perhaps due to the controversy about the topic in feminism. The first peer-reviewed academic journal about the study of pornography, Porn Studies, was published in 2014.[47]

Classification

Pornography is often distinguished from erotica, which consists of the portrayal of sexuality with high-art aspirations, focusing also on feelings and emotions, while pornography involves the depiction of acts in a sensational manner, with the entire focus on the physical act, so as to arouse quick intense reactions.[1][48][49] Pornography is generally classified as either softcore or hardcore. A pornographic work is characterized as hardcore if it has any hardcore content, no matter how small. Both forms of pornography generally contain nudity. Softcore pornography generally contains nudity or partial nudity in sexually suggestive situations, but without explicit sexual activity, sexual penetration or "extreme" fetishism,[50] while hardcore pornography may contain graphic sexual activity and visible penetration,[51] including unsimulated sex scenes.

Subgenres

Pornography encompasses a wide variety of genres. Pornography featuring heterosexual acts composes the bulk of pornography and is "centred and invisible", marking the industry as heteronormative. However, a substantial portion of pornography is not normative, featuring more nonconventional forms of scenarios and sexual activity such as "'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM, and body modification."[52]

Pornography can be classified according to the physical characteristics of the participants, fetish, sexual orientation, etc., as well as the types of sexual activity featured. Reality and voyeur pornography, animated videos, and legally prohibited acts also influence the classification of pornography. Pornography may fall into more than one genre. Some examples of pornography genres:

Commercialism

Economics
Main article: Sex industry

Revenues of the adult industry in the United States are difficult to determine. In 1970, a Federal study estimated that the total retail value of hardcore pornography in the United States was no more than $10 million.[53] In 1998, Forrester Research published a report on the online "adult content" industry estimating $750 million to $1 billion in annual revenue. Studies in 2001 put the total (including video, pay-per-view, Internet and magazines) between $2.6 billion and $3.9 billion.[7]

As of 2014, the porn industry was believed to bring in more than $13 billion on a yearly basis in the United States.[54] CNBC has estimated that pornography was a $13 billion industry in the US, with $3,075 being spent on porn every second and a new porn video being produced every 39 minutes.[55]

A significant amount of pornographic video is shot in the San Fernando Valley, which has been a pioneering region for producing adult films since the 1970s, and has since become home for various models, actors/actresses, production companies, and other assorted businesses involved in the production and distribution of pornography.

The pornography industry has been considered influential in deciding format wars in media, including being a factor in the VHS vs. Betamax format war (the videotape format war)[56][57] and in the Blu-ray vs. HD DVD format war (the high-def format war).[56][57][58]

Technology

Pornographers have taken advantage of each technological advance in the production and distribution of visual images. Pornography is considered a driving force in the development of technologies from the printing press, through photography (still and motion), to satellite TV, home video, other forms of video, and the Internet.[59]

With commercial availability of tiny cameras and wireless equipment, "voyeur" pornography established an audience.[60][61] Mobile cameras are used to capture pornographic photos or videos, and forwarded as MMS, a practice known as sexting.

Computer-generated images and manipulations
See also: Virtual reality sex

Digital manipulation requires the use of source photographs, but some pornography is produced without human actors at all. The idea of completely computer-generated pornography was conceived very early as one of the most obvious areas of application for computer graphics and 3D rendering. Further advances in technology have allowed increasingly photorealistic 3D figures to be used in interactive pornography.[62][63][64]

Until the late 1990s, digitally manipulated pornography could not be produced cost-effectively. In the early 2000s, it became a growing segment, as the modelling and animation software matured and the rendering capabilities of computers improved. As of 2004, computer-generated pornography depicting situations involving children and sex with fictional characters, such as Lara Croft, is already produced on a limited scale. The October 2004 issue of Playboy featured topless pictures of the title character from the BloodRayne video game.[65]

3D pornography

The first pornographic film shot in 3D was 3D Sex and Zen: Extreme Ecstasy, released April 2011 in Hong Kong.[66]

Production and distribution by region
Main article: Pornography by region
A street stall in Hong Kong selling pornography.

The production and distribution of pornography are economic activities of some importance. The exact size of the economy of pornography and the influence that it has in political circles are matters of controversy.

In the United States, the sex film industry is centered in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles. In Europe, Budapest is regarded as the industry center.[67][68][69]

Piracy, the illegal copying and distribution of material, is of great concern to the porn industry,[70] the subject of litigation and formalized anti-piracy efforts.[71][72]

Study and analysis
See also: Pornography addiction and Effects of pornography

Research concerning the effects of pornography is concerned with multiple outcomes.[73] Such research includes potential influences on rape, domestic violence, sexual dysfunction, difficulties with sexual relationships, and child sexual abuse.[74] While some literature reviews suggest that pornographic images and films can be addictive, insufficient evidence exists to draw conclusions.[75][76][77][78] Several studies conclude the liberalization of porn in society may be associated with decreased rape and sexual violence rates, while others suggest no effect, or are inconclusive.[79][80][81][82][83][84][85]

Laws and regulations
Further information: Pornography laws by region and Laws regarding child pornography
Sex and the law
Social issues
Specific offences
(Varies by jurisdiction)
Sex offender registration
Portals
  •  Human sexuality portal
  •  Law portal
World map of pornography (18+) laws
  Pornography legal
  Pornography legal, but under some restrictions
  Pornography illegal
  Data unavailable

The legal status of pornography varies widely from country to country. Most countries allow at least some form of pornography. In some countries, softcore pornography is considered tame enough to be sold in general stores or to be shown on TV. Hardcore pornography, on the other hand, is usually regulated. The production and sale, and to a slightly lesser degree the possession, of child pornography is illegal in almost all countries, and some countries have restrictions on pornography depicting violence, for example rape pornography or animal pornography.

Pornographic entertainment on display in a sex shop window, where there is usually a minimum age to go into pornographic stores

Most countries attempt to restrict minors' access to hardcore materials, limiting availability to sex shops, mail-order, and television channels that parents can restrict, among other means. There is usually an age minimum for entrance to pornographic stores, or the materials are displayed partly covered or not displayed at all. More generally, disseminating pornography to a minor is often illegal. Many of these efforts have been rendered practically irrelevant by widely available Internet pornography. A failed US law would have made these same restrictions apply to the internet.

The adult film industry regulations in California require that all actors and actresses practice safe sex using condoms. It is rare to see condom use in pornography.[86] Since porn does better when actors are unprotected, many companies film in other states. Miami is a major area for amateur porn. Twitter plays a big part in an actor's success: because Twitter does not censor content, actors can post freely without having to self-censor, unlike on Instagram and on Facebook.[87]

In the United States, a person receiving unwanted commercial mail he or she deems pornographic (or otherwise offensive) may obtain a Prohibitory Order, either against all mail from a particular sender, or against all sexually explicit mail, by applying to the United States Postal Service. There are recurring urban legends of snuff movies, in which murders are filmed for pornographic purposes. Despite extensive work to ascertain the truth of these rumors, law enforcement officials have not found any such works.

Some people, including pornography producer Larry Flynt and the writer Salman Rushdie,[88] have argued that pornography is vital to freedom and that a free and civilized society should be judged by its willingness to accept pornography.

The UK government has criminalized possession of what it terms "extreme pornography", following the highly publicized murder of Jane Longhurst.

Child pornography is illegal in most countries, with a child most commonly being a person under the age of 18 (though the age varies). In those countries, any film or photo that shows a child in a sexual act is considered pornography and illegal.

Pornography can infringe into basic human rights of those involved, especially when sexual consent was not obtained. For example, revenge porn is a phenomenon where disgruntled sexual partners release images or video footage of intimate sexual activity, usually on the internet, without authorization from the other person.[89] Lawmakers have also raised concerns about "upskirt" photos taken of women without their consent. In many countries there has been a demand to make such activities specifically illegal carrying higher punishments than mere breach of privacy or image rights, or circulation of prurient material.[90][91] As a result, some jurisdictions have enacted specific laws against "revenge porn".[92]

What is not pornography

In the U.S., a July 2014 criminal case decision in Massachusetts, Commonwealth v. Rex, 469 Mass. 36 (2014),[93] made a legal determination of what was not to be considered "pornography" and in this particular case "child pornography".[94] It was determined that photographs of naked children that were from sources such as National Geographic magazine, a sociology textbook, and a nudist catalog were not considered pornography in Massachusetts even while in the possession of a convicted and (at the time) incarcerated sex offender.[94]

Drawing the line depends on time and place; Occidental mainstream culture got increasingly "pornified" (i.e. tainted by pornographic themes and mainstream films got to include unsimulated sexual acts).[95]

In the United States, some courts have applied US copyright protection to pornographic materials.[96][97] Although the first US copyright law specifically did not cover obscene materials, the provision was removed subsequently. Most pornographic works are theoretically work for hire meaning pornographic models do not receive statutory royalties for their performances. Of particular difficulty is the changing community attitudes of what is considered obscene, meaning that works could slip into and out of copyright protection based upon the prevailing standards of decency. This was not an issue with the copyright law up until 1972 when copyright protection required registration. The law was changed to make copyright protection automatic, and for the life of the author.

Some courts have held that copyright protection effectively applies to works, whether they are obscene or not,[98] but not all courts have ruled the same way.[99] The copyright protection rights of pornography in the United States has again been challenged as late as February 2012.[96][100]

STD prevention and birth control methods

According to the cast of the Netflix documentary “Hot Girls Wanted”, most of the actors and actresses get screened for STD’S every two weeks. However, it is not required for them to be on birth control. One actress in the film states that after partaking in a “Cream Pie” shot which involves ejaculation in the vagina, she was then instructed to purchase Plan B (emergency contraception pill) in order to protect herself from pregnancy. These shots pay more, which is why women will take the risk of falling pregnant.[101]

Views on pornography
Further information: Opposition to pornography
A caricature on "the great epidemic of pornography", 19th-century French illustration

Views and opinions of pornography come in a variety of forms and from a diversity of demographics and societal groups. Opposition of the subject generally, though not exclusively,[102] comes from three main sources: law, feminism and religion.

Feminist views
Main article: Feminist views of pornography

Many feminists, including Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon, argue that all pornography is demeaning to women or that it contributes to violence against women, both in its production and in its consumption. The production of pornography, they argue, entails the physical, psychological, or economic coercion of the women who perform in it, and where they argue that the abuse and exploitation of women is rampant; in its consumption, they charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment.[103][104][105]

Sexual exclusionary feminists charge that pornography presents a severely distorted image of sexual relations, and reinforces sex myths; that it always shows women as readily available and desiring to engage in sex at any time, with any man, on men's terms, always responding positively to any advances men make.[106] They argue that because pornography often shows women enjoying and desiring to be violently attacked by men, saying "no" when they actually want sex, fighting back but then ending up enjoying the act – this can affect the public understanding of legal issues such as consent to sexual relations.[107]

In contrast to these objections, other feminist scholars argue that the lesbian feminist movement in the 1980s was good for women in the porn industry.[108] As more women entered the developmental side of the industry, this allowed women to gear porn more towards women because they knew what women wanted, both for actresses and the audience.[108] This is believed to be a good thing because for such a long time, the porn industry has been directed by men for men.[108] This also sparked the arrival of making lesbian porn for lesbians instead of men.[108]

Furthermore, many feminists argue that the advent of VCR, home video, and affordable consumer video cameras allowed for the possibility of feminist pornography.[109] Consumer video made it possible for the distribution and consumption of video pornography to locate women as legitimate consumers of pornography. Tristan Taormino says that feminist porn is "all about creating a fair working environment and empowering everyone involved."[110] Feminist porn directors are interested in challenging representations of men and women, as well as providing sexually-empowering imagery that features many kinds of bodies.[111]

In a 1995 essay for The New Yorker, writer Susan Faludi argued that porn was one of the few industries where women enjoy a power advantage in the workplace. "'Actresses have the power,' Alec Metro, one of the men in line, ruefully noted of the X-rated industry. A former firefighter who claimed to have lost a bid for a job to affirmative action, Metro was already divining that porn might not be the ideal career choice for escaping the forces of what he called 'reverse discrimination.' Female performers can often dictate which male actors they will and will not work with. 'They make more money than us.' Porn – at least, porn produced for a heterosexual audience – is one of the few contemporary occupations where the pay gap operates in women's favor; the average actress makes fifty to a hundred per cent more money than her male counterpart. But then she is the object of desire; he is merely her appendage, the object of the object."[112]

Harry Brod offered a Marxist feminist view: "I would argue that sex seems overrated because men look to sex for fulfillment of nonsexual emotional needs, a quest doomed to failure. Part of the reason for this failure is the priority of quantity over quality of sex which comes with sexuality's commodification."[113]

Religious views
Main article: Religious views on pornography

Religious organizations have been important in bringing about political action against pornography.[114] In the United States, religious beliefs affect the formation of political beliefs that concern pornography.[115]

Women in the industry

The 2012 study "Why Become a Pornography Actress?"[116] analyzed female pornographic film actresses and their reasons for choosing the occupation, finding that the primary reasons were money (53%), sex (27%), and attention (16%).[117] Respondents also stated the aspects of their work which they disliked. These included industry-associated people, e.g., co-workers, directors, producers, and agents, whose "attitudes, behaviors, and poor hygiene [were] difficult to handle within their work environment" or who were unscrupulous and unprofessional (39%); STD risk (29%); and exploitation within the industry (20%).[118]

See also

References
  1. What Distinguishes Erotica from Pornography? – Leon F Seltzer, Psychology Today, 6 April 2011
  2. H. Montgomery Hyde (1964), A History of Pornography: 1–26.
  3. Canby, Vincent (July 22, 1969). "Movie Review – Blue Movie (1968) Screen: Andy Warhol's 'Blue Movie'". The New York Times. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  4. Comenas, Gary (2005). "Blue Movie (1968)". WarholStars.org. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  5. Canby, Vincent (August 10, 1969). "Warhol's Red Hot and 'Blue' Movie. D1. Print. (behind paywall)". The New York Times. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  6. Coopersmith, Jonathan (March 2006). "Does Your Mother Know What YouReallyDo? The Changing Nature and Image of Computer‐Based Pornography". History and Technology. 22 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/07341510500508610. ISSN 0734-1512. S2CID 143713545.
  7. Ackman, Dan (25 May 2001). "How Big Is Porn?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 9 June 2001. Retrieved 8 November 2007. $2.6 billion to $3.9 billion. Sources: Adams Media Research, Forrester Research, Veronis Suhler Communications Industry Report, IVD
  8. "Things Are Looking Up in America's Porn Industry – NBC News". NBC News. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
  9. "Best Internet Filter Software of 2019". Archived from the original on 2011-10-13. Retrieved 2010-05-27.[Last accessed on 2010 Nov 12]
  10. Staff. "The Truth About California's Adult Entertainment Industry White Paper 1999". Adult Video News. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  11. "I was raped at 14, and the video ended up on a porn site". British Broadcasting Corporation. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
  12. Cole, Samantha; Maiberg, Emanuel (16 July 2019). "How Pornhub Enables Doxing and Harassment". Vice. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
  13. Cole, Samantha (6 February 2020). "How to Remove Non-Consensual Videos From Pornhub". Vice. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  14. Broster, Alice (27 August 2019). "#NotYourPorn Is The Campaign Fighting To Get Non-Consensual Content Removed From UK Porn Sites". Bustle. Retrieved 8 March 2020.
  15. List of Greek words starting with πορν- (porn-) on Perseus.
  16. πορνογράφος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  17. Athenaeus. "Book 13.567b". The Deipnosophists (in Greek). At the Perseus Project.
  18. "πορνογραφία". Dictionary of Modern Greek, Institute of Manolis Triantafyllidis, 1998.
  19. Online Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2011-04-21.
  20. history of the word pornography | podictionary – for word lovers – dictionary etymology, trivia & history. podictionary (2009-03-13). Retrieved 2011-04-21. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11.
  21. Talvacchia, Bette (2010). "Pornography". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 767–771. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
  22. Richard Rudgley (2000). Venus Figurines: Sex Objects or Symbols?. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Simon and Schuster. pp. 184–200. ISBN 978-0-684-86270-5. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  23. Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. The British Museum Press. pp. 150–152. ISBN 0-7141-1705-6.
  24. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Daily Life. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. p. 137. ISBN 978-0313294976.
  25. Robins, Gay (1993). Women in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 189–190. ISBN 0-674-95469-6. Turin erotic papyrus.
  26. O'Connor, David (September–October 2001). "Eros in Egypt". Archaeology Odyssey. Archived from the original on 2019-01-30. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  27. Foxon, D. F. Libertine Literature in England, 1660–1745, 1965, p. 45.
  28. Wagner, "Introduction", in Cleland, Fanny Hill, 1985, p. 7.
  29. Lane, Obscene Profits: The Entrepreneurs of Pornography in the Cyber Age, 2000, p. 11.
  30. Browne, The Guide to United States Popular Culture, 2001, p. 273, ISBN 0-87972-821-3; Sutherland, Offensive Literature: Decensorship in Britain, 1960–1982, 1983, p. 32, ISBN 0-389-20354-8.
  31. Pornography: A Secret History of Civilisation, World of Wonder, Channel 4 Television Corporation, UK, 1999. Part 1.
  32. Karabell, Zachary (2003). Parting the desert: the creation of the Suez Canal. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 195. ISBN 0-375-40883-5.
  33. Miriam A. Drake (2003). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Abs-Dec. CRC Press. p. 470. ISBN 978-0-8247-2077-3. Retrieved 16 July. 2017
  34. The Comstock Act 17 Stat. 598
  35. Eskridge, William N. (2002). Gaylaw: challenging the apartheid of the closet. Harvard University Press. p. 392.
  36. From the precedent set by R. v. Curl (1729) following the publication of Venus in the Cloister.
  37. H. Montgomery Hyde A History of Pornography. (1969) London, Heinemann; p. 14.
  38. Judith Ann Giesberg, Sex and the Civil War: Soldiers, Pornography, and the Making of American Morality (U of North Carolina Press, 2017).
  39. Beck, Marianna (May 2003). "The Roots of Western Pornography: Victorian Obsessions and Fin-de-Siècle Predilections". Libido, The Journal of Sex and Sensibility. Retrieved 22 August 2006.
  40. Bottomore, Stephen (1996). "Léar (Albert Kirchner)". Who's Who of Victorian Cinema. British Film Institute. Retrieved 15 October 2006. (Stephen Herbert and Luke McKernan, eds.)
  41. Bottomore, Stephen (1996). "Eugène Pirou". Who's Who of Victorian Cinema. British Film Institute. Retrieved 15 October 2006. (Stephen Herbert and Luke McKernan, eds.)
  42. Chris Rodley, Dev Varma, Kate Williams III (Directors); Marilyn Milgrom, Grant Romer, Rolf Borowczak, Bob Guccione, Dean Kuipers (Cast) (7 March 2006). Pornography: The Secret History of Civilization (DVD). Port Washington, NY: Koch Vision. ISBN 1-4172-2885-7. Archived from the original on 22 August 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2006.
  43. Corliss, Richard (29 March 2005). "That Old Feeling: When Porno Was Chic". Time. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2006.
  44. Jacobs, Tom (August 28, 2015). "Pornography Consumption on the Rise". Pacific Standard. The Miller-McCune Center for Research, Media and Public Policy. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
  45. "Bulk Alexa rank checker". BulkSeoTools.com Bulk Alexa Rank Checker. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  46. Auerbach, David (23 October 2014). "Vampire Porn". Slate. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
  47. Dugdale, John (2 May 2013). "Porn studies is the new discipline for academics". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
  48. William J. Gehrke (10 December 1996). "Erotica is Not Pornography". The Tech.
  49. "h2g2 – What is Erotic and What is Pornographic?". BBC. 29 March 2004. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
  50. Martin Amis (17 March 2001). "A rough trade". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  51. "P20th Century Nudes in Art". The Art History Archive. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  52. Mulholland, Monique (March 2011). "When Porno Meets Hetero". Australian Feminist Studies. Taylor & Francis. 26 (67): 119–135. doi:10.1080/08164649.2011.546332. S2CID 142218966. The pornographic genre is immense, and includes an enormous variety of styles catering to an equally vast range of tastes and fetishes. Certainly, mainstream heteroporn makes up the main bulk of the genre, and is most easily accessible. As stated above, this style of porn includes highly formulaic displays of paired or group sex, enacted by bodies exhibiting a conventional gendered aesthetic, moving through various sexual positions and penetrations. Nonetheless, some forms of porn are more normative than others, and indeed not all forms of heteroporn are normative, such as 'rimming', girl on boy strap-on anal sex, and hard-core BDSM. Pornography also includes an endless array of different kinds of fetish, 'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification. The list of non- mainstream porn is endless and displays bodies, gender scenarios and sexual activity differently to heteronormative formulations of mainstream heteroporn.
  53. President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. Report of The Commission on Obscenity and Pornography 1970, Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office.
  54. Szymanski, Dawn M.; Stewart-Richardson, Destin N. (January 2014). "Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships". The Journal of Men's Studies. Sage. 22 (1): 64–82. doi:10.3149/jms.2201.64. S2CID 146523196.
  55. Josh Lipton (2010-01-28). "Coming Soon: XXX In 3D". Minyanville. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  56. Mearian, Lucas (2 May 2006). "Porn industry may be decider in Blu-ray, HD-DVD battle". MacWorld. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Ron Wagner, Director of IT at a California porn studio: "If you look at the VHS vs. Beta standards, you see the much higher-quality standard dying because of [the porn industry's support of VHS] ... The mass volume of tapes in the porn market at the time went out on VHS."
  57. Lynch, Martin (17 January 2007). "Blu-ray loves porn after all". The Inquirer. Incisive Media Investments. Archived from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. By many accounts VHS would not have won its titanic struggle against Sony's Betamax video tape format if it had not been for porn. This might be over-stating its importance but it was an important factor ... There is no way that Sony can ignore the boost that porn can give the Blu-ray format.
  58. Gardiner, Bryan (22 January 2007). "Porn Industry May Decide DVD Format War". FOXNews.com – Technology News. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. As was expected, the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show saw even more posturing and politics between the Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD camps, with each side announcing a new set of alliances and predicting that the end of the war was imminent.
  59. Monaco, James. (1999). The dictionary of new media : the new digital world : video, audio, print, film, television, DVD, home theatre, satellite, digital photography, wireless, super CD, internet. Harbor Electronic. ISBN 0-9669744-0-9. OCLC 301650106.
  60. Staff. "Magnet Media Holds Porn/Tech Event in NYC This Tuesday". Adult Video News. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  61. Staff. "How Porn Drives Mainstream Internet Technology Adoption Tuesday, Mar 11, 12:30 pm @ Rose Auditorium". Garys Guide. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  62. Samantha Cole and Emanuel Maiberg (2019-11-20). "'They Can't Stop Us:' People Are Having Sex With 3D Avatars of Their Exes and Celebrities". Vice.
  63. Alyson Krueger (2017-10-28). "Virtual Reality Gets Naughty". New York Times.
  64. Andrew Griffin (2017-11-09). "VIRTUAL REALITY PORNOGRAPHY IS ALLOWING FOR MORE 'INTIMATE' AND 'PERSONAL' EXPERIENCES BUT COULD BRING HORRORS, WARN EXPERTS". The Independent.
  65. "Playboy undressed video game women – Aug. 25, 2004". CNN. 25 August 2004. Retrieved 26 August 2006.
  66. "Hong Kong filmmakers shoot 'first' 3D porn film". Asian Sex Gazette. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
  67. “Strange and wonderful” Budapest — Where the living is increasingly pleasant ... and still very cheap Archived 2010-02-23 at the Wayback Machine. Escapeartist.com (1989-09-11). Retrieved 2011-04-21.
  68. Sex trade moguls thrive by the Blue Danube – World, News. The Independent (1996-07-21). Retrieved 2011-04-21.
  69. The Art and Politics of Netporn » Abstract. Networkcultures.org. Retrieved 2011-04-21.
  70. Hymes, Tom. "Adult Tube Sites Now Spamming Through Google News". AVN.com. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  71. Kernes, Mark. "Nightline Takes a Look at Porn Piracy, and Targets MindGeek". AVN.com. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  72. Staff. "Takedown Piracy Celebrates Fifth Anniversary". AVN.com. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  73. Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Does porn hurt children?". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  74. "Is porn harmful?". BBC. 26 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  75. Kraus, Shane W; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N (2015-09-22). "Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 385–386. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.300. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 4677151. PMID 26657963.
  76. Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (2016-02-19). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". Addiction. 111 (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127.
  77. Kühn, S; Gallinat, J (2016). Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality. International Review of Neurobiology. 129. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 9780128039144. PMID 27503448.
  78. Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 71: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829.
  79. Kutchinsky, Berl (1992), "Pornography, sex crime and public policy", in Gerull, Sally-Anne; Halstead, Boronia (eds.), Sex industry and public policy: proceedings of a conference held 6–8 May 1991, Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology, pp. 41–55, archived from the original on October 7, 2015 ISBN 9780642182913 Pdf. Archived 2013-11-26 at the Wayback Machine
  80. Kutchinsky, Berl (Summer 1973). "The effect of easy availability of pornography on the incidence of sex crimes: the Danish experience". Journal of Social Issues. 29 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00094.x.
  81. Diamond, Milton (September–October 2009). "Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 32 (5): 304–314. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004. PMID 19665229.
  82. Slade, Joseph (2001). Pornography and sexual representation: a reference guide, volume 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313275685.
  83. Kutchinsky, Berl (1970). Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark. New social science monographs. United States: Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. OCLC 155896. Online. Archived 2007-10-30 at the Wayback Machine
  84. Kendall, Todd D. (January 19–20, 2007). Pornography, rape, and the internet (doc). Fourth bi-annual Conference on the Economics of the Software and Internet Industries. Toulouse, France. Retrieved 30 March 2014. Pdf.
  85. D'Amato, Anthony (June 23, 2006). "Porn up, rape down". Northwestern Public Law (Research Paper No. 913013). doi:10.2139/ssrn.913013. SSRN 913013.
  86. "Safety in the Adult Film Industry". www.dir.ca.gov. Retrieved 2020-04-17.
  87. "Hot Girls Wanted | Netflix Official Site". www.netflix.com. Retrieved 2020-04-17.
  88. Baxter, Sarah; Brooks, Richard (8 August 2004). "Porn is vital to freedom, says Rushdie". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 9 November 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Pornography exists everywhere, of course, but when it comes into societies in which it's difficult for young men and women to get together and do what young men and women often like doing, it satisfies a more general need ... While doing so, it sometimes becomes a kind of standard-bearer for freedom, even civilisation.
  89. Salter, Michael (2013). "Responding to revenge porn: Gender, justice and online legal impunity". Presented at "whose Justice? Contested Approaches to Crime and Conflict", University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  90. Levendowski, Amanda M. (2014). "Using Copyright to Combat Revenge Porn". NYU Journal of Intellectual Property & Entertainment Law. Social Science Research Network. 3. SSRN 2374119.
  91. Bhasin, Puneet (29 November 2014). "Online Revenge Porn-Recourse for Victims under Cyber Laws". India: iPleaders. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  92. "'Revenge porn' Facebook post leads to jail sentence". BBC News. 2014-12-03. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  93. Staff. "Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, Norfolk. COMMONWEALTH v. John REX. No. SJC–11480. Decided: July 9, 2014". findlaw.com. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
  94. Kernes, Mark. "MA Supremes Rule National Geographic Photos Not Kid Porn". AVN.com. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
  95. Aucoin, Don (2006-01-24). "The pornification of America". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2018-11-10. Retrieved 2018-11-10.
  96. Goussé, Caroline (2012-02-16). "No Copyright Protection for Pornography: A Daring Response to File-Sharing Litigation". Intellectual Property Brief. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
  97. Masnick, Mike (2011-11-04). "Court Wonders If Porn Can Even Be Covered By Copyright". Tech Dirt. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
  98. Mitchell Bros. Film Group v. Cinema Adult Theater, 604 F.2d 852 (5th Cir.1979) and Jartech v. Clancy, 666 F.2d 403 (9th Cir.1982) held that obscenity could not be a defense to copyright claims.
  99. Devils Films, Inc. v. Nectar Video Under, 29 F.Supp.2d 174, 175 (S.D.N.Y. 1998) refused to follow the Mitchell ruling and relied on the doctrine of "clean hands" to deny copyright protection to works seen as obscene.
  100. "You Can’t Copyright Porn, Harassed BitTorrent Defendant Insists", TorrentFreak, 6 February 2012. Retrieved 9 Augusti 2012.
  101. "Netflix".
  102. "2 male porn performers test positive for HIV". Retrieved 31 December 2014.
  103. Shrage, Laurie (Fall 2015), "Feminist perspectives on sex markets: pornography", Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  104. MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1983). "Not a moral issue". Yale Law & Policy Review. 2 (2): 321–345. JSTOR 40239168. Sex forced on real women so that it can be sold at a profit to be forced on other real women; women's bodies trussed and maimed and raped and made into things to be hurt and obtained and accessed, and this presented as the nature of women; the coercion that is visible and the coercion that has become invisible—this and more grounds the feminist concern with pornography Pdf.
  105. "A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)". Think Tank. 1995. PBS. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
  106. Jeffries, Stuart (12 April 2006). "Are women human? (Interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". The Guardian. London.
  107. Jeffries, Stuart (12 April 2006). "Are women human? (Interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". The Guardian. London. Catharine MacKinnon argues that: "Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says 'I didn't consent' and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitises people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented."
  108. Ziv, Amalia (October 2014). "Girl meets boy: cross-gender queer and the promise of pornography". Sexualities. 17 (7): 885–905. doi:10.1177/1363460714532937. S2CID 145460606.
  109. Commella, Lynn (2013), "From text to context", in Taormino, Tristan; Parreñas Shimizu, Celine; Penley, Constance; Miller-Young, Mireille (eds.), The feminist porn book: the politics of producing pleasure, New York, New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, pp. 79–96, ISBN 9781558618190.
  110. Vogels, Josey (21 April 2009). "Female-friendly porn". Metro News. Canada: Metro International. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  111. Erickson, Loree (2013), "Out of line: the sexy femmegimp politics of flaunting it!", in Taormino, Tristan; Parreñas Shimizu, Celine; Penley, Constance; Miller-Young, Mireille (eds.), The feminist porn book: the politics of producing pleasure, New York, New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, pp. 320–328, ISBN 9781558618190.
  112. Fauldi, Susan (October 30, 1995). "The Money Shot". The New Yorker. pp. 65–66. (Emphasis in original).
  113. Brod, Harry (1996). "Pornography and the alienation of male sexuality". In May, Larry; Strikwerda, Robert; Hopkins, Patrick D. (eds.). Rethinking masculinity: philosophical explorations in light of feminism (2nd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 242. ISBN 9780847682577.
  114. Sherkat, Darren E.; Ellison, Christopher G. (March 1997). "The cognitive structure of a moral crusade: conservative protestantism and opposition to pornography". Social Forces. 75 (3): 958. doi:10.1093/sf/75.3.957. JSTOR 2580526.
  115. Sherkat, Darren E.; Ellison, Christopher G. (August 1999). "Recent developments and current controversies in the sociology of religion". Annual Review of Sociology. 25: 370. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.363. JSTOR 223509. Pdf.
  116. Griffith, James D.; Adams, Lea T.; Hart, Christian L.; Mitchell, Sharon (July 2012). "Why become a pornography actress?". International Journal of Sexual Health. 24 (3): 165–180. doi:10.1080/19317611.2012.666514. S2CID 143232567.
  117. Griffith et al. 2012, pp. 170.
  118. Griffith et al. 2012, pp. 173.

Further reading

Advocacy

Review of Strossen's book: Blumen, Jonathan (November 1995). "Nadine Strossen: pornography must be tolerated". The Ethical Spectacle. 1 (11).
Also as: Williams, Linda (1999). Hard core: power, pleasure, and the "frenzy of the visible" (Expanded paperback ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520219434.
  • Williams, Linda, ed. (2004). Porn studies. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822333128.

Opposition

See also: Parent, W. A. (April 1990). "A second look at pornography and the subordination of women". The Journal of Philosophy. 87 (4): 205–211. doi:10.2307/2026681. JSTOR 2026681. A criticism of Vadas' paper.
  • Vadas, Melinda (August 1992). "The Pornography/Civil Rights Ordinance v. The BOG: and the winner is…?". Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy. 7 (3): 94–109. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1992.tb00906.x. JSTOR 3809874. An argument that pornography increases women's vulnerability to rape.
  • Various (1988). Pornography and sexual violence: evidence of the links. The complete transcript of Public Hearings on Ordinances to Add Pornography as Discrimination Against Women: Minneapolis City Council, Government Operations Committee, December 12 and 13, 1983. London: Everywoman. ISBN 9781870868006. A representation of the causal connections between pornography and violence towards women.
  • Whisnant, Rebecca (2015), "Not your father's Playboy, not your mother's feminist movement: feminism in porn", in Kiraly, Miranda; Tyler, Meagan (eds.), Freedom fallacy: the limits of liberal feminism, Ballarat, Victoria: Connor Court Publishing, ISBN 9781925138542.

Neutral or mixed

  • Vance, Carole, ed. (1984). Pleasure and danger: exploring female sexuality. Boston: Routledge & K. Paul. ISBN 9780710202482. Collection of papers from 1982 conference; visible and divisive split between anti-pornography activists and lesbian S&M theorists.
  • Real Your Brain on Porn. Retrieved 2019-04-14.

Commentary

  • "American Porn". Frontline. PBS. Retrieved 2014-02-01. Interactive web site companion to a Frontline documentary exploring the pornography industry within the United States.

Technology

Economics

Government

History

Sociology

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.