Whaling in the Sea of Okhotsk

American and French[6] whaleships, as well as a few German,[7] Hawaiian,[8] Russian,[9] Chilean,[10] Australian,[11] British,[12] and Canadian,[13] hunted whales in the Sea of Okhotsk between the late 1830s and 1909.[1][14][15][16] Right whales were targeted from the mid- to late 1840s[17][18] and from the 1880s onwards,[19][20][21] while bowheads were first caught in 1847, and dominated the catch between 1852 and the late 1860s.[1] Between 1850 and 1853 the majority of the fleet went to the Bering Strait region to hunt bowheads, but intense competition, poor ice conditions, and declining catches forced the fleet back to the Sea of Okhotsk. From 1854 to 1856, an average of over 160 vessels cruised in the sea each year.[22] As catches declined between 1858 and 1860 the fleet shifted back to the Bering Strait region;[22] by the mid-1860s few ships cruised in the sea.[23] In the 1860s the Russians also established a couple whaling stations in Tugur Bay, which operated until the mid-1870s.[24] American and French ships, meanwhile, had abandoned the sea in the early 1870s.[25] Ten vessels returned in 1874[26][27] but the bowhead catch was so poor that season[28][29] that they again deserted the area for the rest of the decade.[30][31] From the 1880s to the early 1900s the fleet never numbered more than eight vessels.[32][33] Most caught right whales, with few venturing north to search for bowheads.[1][34][35][36]

In 1854, on hearing that war had broken out, a few French ships painted their sterns with American names to avoid capture;[37][38] the following year the British war steamer Barracouta ordered an American whaleship out of Ayan.[39] In May 1865, the Confederate raider Shenandoah captured and burned the ship Abigail (310 tons), of New Bedford, off western Kamchatka;[40] one ship, on learning of her depredations, hid at the head of a bay for two weeks.[41] Russian cruisers also seized or ordered away foreign whaleships in the sea in 1867,[42] 1875,[43] 1885,[44] and 1892.[45]

The steam bark Mary and Helen II in the Arctic in 1884. She visited the Sea of Okhotsk in 1885.

Ships usually entered the Sea of Okhotsk in May and left in October,[46] though they could enter it as early as March[47] and leave as late as November.[48] Most ships entered and exited the sea via the Fourth Kuril Strait;[49] some used Bussol,[50] Diana,[51] or Krusenstern Strait.[52] Those cruising in the Sea of Japan first usually entered the sea via La Pérouse Strait.[53] Around this time a stove was put in the forecastle[54] or cabin[55] and a crow's nest was set up.[56] Soon after entering the sea ships reached the main body of pack ice around 57° N and 150° E, where they typically encountered the first bowheads.[57] They then worked through the ice either to the northeast to Shelikhov Gulf,[58] north to Taui Bay,[59] or west to Iony Island.[60] After spending a few weeks cruising off Iony Island, ships worked their way through the shore lead[61] to the bays around the Shantar Islands, which they typically reached in July;[62][63][64] in light ice years they could reach them by June.[65][66][67]

Boats were sent ahead on extended cruises[68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77] to make their way through the ice to the heads of bays,[61][78] where they could catch several bowheads, have them flensed on the beach, and their blubber tied in rafts by the time the ships reached them.[79] When the ice left the bays ships were able to move about, with boats cruising from the ship as well as being sent out on cruises lasting several days.[61][80] Some ships spent the majority of the season in a single bay;[81][82] but most went from bay to bay.[83][84][85] Ships also anchored in one bay and sent boats into an adjacent bay.[61][86] When the ship was full of oil and bone, the colors were set[87] and the tryworks were thrown overboard.[88] In September, before leaving the sea, many of the ships stopped at the anchorage south of Feklistova, where they could obtain wood and water and repair any damage to their vessels.[89]

The Seaman's Bethel in Honolulu, which was visited frequently by Charles Coffin, cooper of the ship Three Brothers, of Nantucket, in 1852 and 1853.

They typically cruised for sperm whales in the tropics between seasons,[90][91] though some went to Baja to cruise for pilot whales offshore,[92] or to catch gray whales along the coast[93] or in the lagoons.[94] Others cruised for humpback whales off the Mariana Islands[95][96][97] or for rights in the East China Sea.[98] In the spring and fall the ships usually stopped at the Hawaiian Islands, with the majority using Honolulu[99] or Lahaina;[100] some visited Hilo,[101] Kauai,[102] Kawaihae,[103] or Kealakekua Bay.[104] Ships that cruised in the Sea of Japan first typically stopped at Guam[105] or Hakodate;[106] some used Hong Kong,[107] Saipan,[108] Nagasaki,[109] Yokohama,[110] Tokyo,[111] Okinawa,[112] or Vladivostok.[113] They also visited San Francisco,[114] Port Lloyd,[115] Hobart,[116] Mangonui,[117] Akaroa,[118] Petropavlovsk,[119] Paita,[120] Valparaíso,[121] Talcahuano,[122] Margarita Bay,[123] Banderas Bay,[124] Cabo San Lucas,[125] Juan Fernandez Island,[126] Mocha,[127] or the Chatham Islands.[128] In the tropics they stopped at Ponape,[129] Aitutaki,[130] Rarotonga,[131] Nuku Hiva,[132] Nauru,[133] Kosrae,[134] Tahiti,[135] Huahine,[136] Rotuma,[137] Arorae,[138] Tutuila,[139] Cocos Island,[140] or the Galápagos.[141]

The fort in Honolulu, where the steward of the ship Three Brothers, of Nantucket, was sent for drunkenness, in November 1852. (Painting by Paul Emmert, c. 1853)

Ships visited these ports to transship oil and bone;[142] ship[143] and discharge men;[144] paint,[145] smoke,[146] caulk,[147] wash,[148] scrap, and copper their ship;[149] and get wood and water;[150] tea and coffee;[151] bread,[152] rice,[153] flour,[154] sugar,[155] and molasses;[156] beef and pork;[157] poultry and livestock (chickens,[158] turkeys,[159] ducks and goats,[160] and pigs, cows, and sheep);[161] sea turtles;[162] and fruits (apples,[163] bananas,[164] oranges,[165] watermelons,[166] coconuts,[167] pineapples,[168] limes,[169] and figs)[170] and vegetables (Irish and sweet potatoes,[171] cabbage,[172] pumpkins,[173] carrots,[174] and beans).[175] While in port or stopping at various islands, ships were visited by native women;[176] men sent and received letters[177] and were given liberty ashore,[178] where they visited bathhouses,[179] attended church,[180] lectures,[181] and funerals,[182] watched (and disrupted) performances at theaters,[183] rented horses or bowled,[184] watched cockfights[185] or horse races,[186] went sightseeing,[187][188] got drunk[189][190] at grogshops[191] and into fights,[192] deserted,[193] contracted diseases (including venereal,[194][195][196][197] measles,[198] dysentery,[199] and smallpox[200]), rioted,[201][202] and ended up in the hospital,[203] jail[204] or the fort.[189] While in port ships also caught or were set afire,[205] ran into each other,[206] or were wrecked.[207]

Some captains brought their wives to the sea.[208] The wives had tea together[209][210] and went ashore for walks[211][212][213] and picnics.[214] Many brought their children along,[215] as well as friends.[216] One gave birth aboard ship while in the sea.[217]

The two Russian whaling stations of Mamga and Tugur – built by the Russian-American Company and Otto Wilhelm Lindholm, respectively – followed different itineraries. Once the ice broke up in June, boat crews or schooners cruised about for bowheads in Tugur Bay or adjacent bays and gulfs. When they caught a whale it was towed onto the beach, flensed, and its blubber boiled into oil at a nearby tryworks. In the fall the schooners were hauled onto the banks of the Mamga or Tugur rivers, where they were left for the winter; the men, meanwhile, spent the winter at one of the stations or went to Nikolayevsk. Supplies and men were obtained in Nikolayevsk and Hakodate, while the catch was shipped via chartered vessel either to Honolulu or San Francisco.[24][218]

A temporary whaling station – built on Nedorazumeniya Island, in Taui Bay, by two crews from a pair of American ships – followed a similar routine to that of the Russian stations, but on a smaller scale. Left with provisions for two months[219][220] while their ships searched for whales to the south,[221][222] the boats went on short cruises in the bay. When a whale was caught it was brought ashore, flensed, and the blubber tried out at a small tryworks.[223] In the fall the men were picked up by their parent vessels and the oil and bone were loaded onto the ships.[224][225]

Bowheads were primarily taken in the northern half of the sea, while rights were mostly caught in the southern half;[1][226][227][228] though the two overlapped in the northeast.[229][230][231][232][233][234] Bowheads were caught in the pack ice in the spring[235] and in the bays and gulfs[236] and along the coast in summer and fall,[237][238][239][240][241] while rights were taken in deep, offshore waters.[1][61] In the bays they saw[242][243] and caught[244][245] bowhead cows and calves as well as "poggys",[246][247] which were small bowheads[248] that only yielded 20-25 barrels of oil.[61] Poggys could be seen in large numbers in the bays.[249][250] They also caught large whales in the bays as well, sometimes seeing them in great quantities.[251] Most bowheads were caught between May and September,[252] though a few were taken in April[253] and October.[254][255][256][257] Rights were primarily caught in August and September,[258] though some were taken as early as May[259] and as late as October.[260] Peak catches for both species were made in August.[261][262] Bowheads could yield as much as 250 barrels of oil,[263] while rights could produce nearly 300 barrels.[264] As many as sixty-five whales could be caught in a season;[265] some came back "clean" (i.e. without catching any whales).[266]

They also caught gray whales,[267] which were first taken in the early 1850s.[268][269] Most were taken in Gizhigin[270][271] and Penzhina bays,[272][273] but some were also caught in Taui Bay[274] and just north of Sakhalin.[275] Grays were caught from June[276] to October.[277] They were seldom seen, chased, or caught off the Shantar Islands[278] or in the bays to the south of them.[279][280] As many as nine grays could be caught in a season.[281][282] They sometimes caught humpbacks,[283][284] killers,[285][286][287] and belugas[288] and also made desultory attempts to catch blue whales[289] and "finbacks" (probably fin whales).[290]

Once they found a whale, they typically sailed up to it, fastened to it with hand-held harpoons, and killed it with hand-held lances;[24] whales were rarely killed by harpoons alone.[291][292] Boatsteerers were "broken" (demoted) for missing whales.[293] Bomb lances[294] were used as early as 1851,[295] but they weren't widely utilized until the late 1850s.[24][296] Greener's guns[297] were also used.[298] Most bowheads and rights were lost when the harpoon drew out of the blubber[299][300][301][302] or the whaleline was lost[303] or parted.[304][305] Most bowheads that sank were able to be saved in shallow waters,[306][307] while the majority of rights that sank were unable to be retrieved in the deep waters they were typically hunted in.[308][309] Men couldn't strike or fasten to whales when they settled underwater[310][311] (sank straight down),[312] slackened their blubber[313][314] (made a hollow in their back so the harpoon would bounce off),[312] or were too "wild",[315] "shy",[316] or "gallied".[317]

Whales were seen loptailing,[318] breaching,[319] scooping[320][321] (skim feeding at the surface),[312] fluking,[322] and finning[323] (pec-slapping).[312]

Boat crews were fitted out for as long as two[324] to three weeks;[61][325] some were gone from their ship for over a month.[326] Two or three boats were usually sent out together.[327] They could travel as far as forty[328] to fifty miles[329] from their ship, spending the long daylight hours[330][331] searching for bowheads and camping on the beach at night.[332] For shelter, they made tents out of paddles and boat sails,[333][334] turned over their whaleboats,[335] built bough huts,[336][337][338][339] or utilized other structures;[340][341] to cook meals, stay warm, and keep bears away they made driftwood fires.[342][343][344] There could be as many as eighty men at a single encampment.[336] There were occasions when boats couldn't go ashore at night due to bears and were forced to sleep in their anchored boats,[345] while at other times they made it to the beach only to be driven from the shore by mosquitoes the next morning.[346]

When cruising for bowheads, boats paddled or rowed as the ice permitted or when there were calms and light airs, but they sailed when there was clear water and a fair breeze.[343][347] Whales were often caught some distance from the ship, forcing boat crews to lie by anchored whales all night.[348] They also went ashore and anchored or tied whales to rocks,[349] the beach,[350] or trees[351] or left whales with other ships so they could go off in search of their own vessel.[352][353][354][355] Those crews who couldn't find or catch whales sometimes resorted to picking up whalebone on the beach.[356]

Lost or tired boat crews often went aboard other ships to get food[357] or spend the night.[358] Some went from ship to ship before finding their own vessel, cruising for bowheads in between.[359] Ships with lost boat crews on board went in search of their vessels,[360] while tired boat crews far from their ship hitched rides from other vessels.[361] Boats that couldn't find their own ships sometimes gave any whales they had caught to the nearest ship to flense for halves[362][363] or just gave them the entire whale.[364] After not being able to find their ship for six days, two boats from the Massachusetts spent several days aboard the Cicero, even cruising for whales with her boats;[365] while two boats from the Daniel Wood were lost from their ship for five days before finding the Florida – wind-bound on the beach, their provisions had given out and they were forced to eat mussels for several days.[366] When boats were out longer than expected, one of the boats was sent out[367] or returned[368] for extra provisions.

Boat crews and schooners from Mamga and Tugur followed similar cruising patterns. Boats were fitted out for as long as a fortnight, sailing about for bowheads during the day and camping on the beach at night.[24] American and Russian crews sometimes camped together.[369]

Boat crews from Nedorazumeniya Island were limited to cruises of several days' duration, operating from a station consisting of only two buildings: a tent of sails and a "cook house". They sailed or rowed about for whales during the day and either returned to the island at night, stopped at a convenient beach, or stayed at a native fishing settlement.[370]

Whereas boats were often sent inshore to look for bowheads, right whaling offshore was always ship-based,[371][372] with three or four boats usually being lowered for whales.[373] Boats after right whales were gone from their ship for hours[374] (not days or weeks, like boats searching for bowheads sometimes were), and seldom ventured far from their ship.[375] While bowheads could be caught at night, boats that were still fast to right whales at sunset normally cut the whaleline and returned to the ship.[376] Unlike bowheads, which were sometimes flensed ashore due to distance and ice, right whales were taken in ice-free waters and relatively close to the ship, allowing them to be brought alongside and flensed.[377][378]

There were several factors that affected the ability of ships to catch whales. These included ice, tides, fog, wind, and competition. They often worked in tandem against them. Ships didn't lower for whales if it was too foggy[379] or too rugged[380] and they collided with each other[381] or the ice due to tides,[382] gales,[383][384] and fogs.[385][386] Ships ran aground at low tide during gales[387] and the tide set boats towing whales past their ship during thick fogs.[388] Boats lost sight of whales in the fog[389] and rain[390] or returned to the ship[391] or went ashore[392] if the fog became too thick or it rained too hard.[393] Boats also had to anchor or tie whales to other ships when there was a head tide[394] or it was too rugged to lie by them.[395] Anchored whales left untended could be lost due to the ice[396] or tides.[397]

Men were killed in a variety of ways: by whales[533][534][535][536][537] and bears;[538][539] in fires;[540] and when cannons burst[541] or boats capsized in the surf;[542] entire boat crews were also lost during gales.[543] Some fell from the rigging[544] or overboard;[545] others died of disease (including consumption,[546] dysentery,[547] and dropsy[548]). The graves of whalemen lined the shores of the sea.[549] They also got scurvy.[550][551]

Desertions[552] were common.[553][554] Those who were caught were flogged[555][556] or put in irons.[557] Hungry deserters asked if they could return to their vessels,[558] while others attempted to get aboard other ships.[559] One deserter spent over two weeks on one of the Shantar Islands living solely on beached whales before being found by another ship's boats,[560] while another was mauled by a bear.[561] Three men, after having deserted from their boats while spending the night ashore, wandered around for seven to ten days and nearly starved before finding a ship short of hands. They worked their passage to Maui, where two of them were discovered by their former master and sent to the fort.[562] A few deserters made good their escape, spending the winter at a Siberian settlement.[563]

Mutinies were rare, though at least one was briefly successful.[564][565] One captain quelled a mutiny by smoking the foremast hands out of the forecastle with a fire of charcoal and brimstone. He then put fifteen of them in irons and flogged several.[566] A few were put ashore with meager provisions;[567] they were also put ashore for refusing duty.[568][569] One man was left on one of the Shantar Islands after he tried to push the captain down the hatchway.[570] They were usually picked up by other vessels.[571][572]

At least twenty-eight whaleships were wrecked in or entering the sea between 1848 and 1907.[573][574][575][576][577] Most were lost in the ice[578] or during gales[579] or fogs.[580] Five were wrecked in 1855[581][582][583] and four each in 1856[584][585][586] and 1858.[587][588][589][590] The majority of the crews were rescued, but about fifty to sixty men perished (including one ship with all hands).[587][591][592][593][594] A few crews were forced to spend the winter at a Siberian settlement or on one of the Shantar Islands.[591][595] Other ship's boats went ashore to salvage what they could from the wrecks.[596][597][598]

Ships traded tobacco,[599] calico,[600] tea,[601] and bread and soap[602] with the natives for reindeer,[603][604] salmon,[605] whalebone,[606] and furs.[607] They also traded with each other. The most common items were ship's anchors,[608] bread and water,[609] beef and pork,[610] potatoes,[611] and whaleboats.[612]

Ships hunted and fished to supplement their diet and income. They shot ducks[613][614] and geese,[615] swans,[616] eagles,[617][618] and seabirds,[619] and caught pinnipeds[620][621] (seals,[622][623] fur seals,[624] and sea lions),[625] fox,[626] and moose.[627] Bears were killed for sport[628] and made into sea pies and trophies;[514] they were also shot for trying to steal whale meat and blubber.[629] They fished for salmon,[630] trout,[631] codfish and "grouper" (probably sea bass),[632] and smelts.[633] They also went ashore to collect bird's eggs,[619][634][635] berries,[636] mussels,[637][638][639] and clams.[640][641][642]