Induan

Induan
	251.902 ± 0.024 – 251.2 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
Chronology
	Key events in the Triassic -255 — – -250 — – -245 — – -240 — – -235 — – -230 — – -225 — – -220 — – -215 — – -210 — – -205 — – -200 — P; Z M; e; s; o; z; o; i; c P T; r; i; a; s; s; i; c J L; N E; a; r. M; i; d; d; l; e L; a; t; e E; J Changhsing. Olenekian Induan Anisian Ladinian Carnian Norian Rhaetian Hettangian ← Permian-Triassic extinction event ← Smithian-Spathian boundary extinction[1] ← Carnian Pluvial Event ← Full recovery of woody trees[2] ← Coals return[3] ← Scleractinian; corals & calcified sponges[4] ← Triassic–Jurassic extinction event An approximate timescale of key Triassic events.; Axis scale: millions of years ago.; (NOTE: The white links are for readability only. They are still clickable.);
Etymology
Name formality	Formal
Usage information
Celestial body	Earth
Regional usage	Global (ICS)
Time scale(s) used	ICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unit	Age
Stratigraphic unit	Stage
Time span formality	Formal
Lower boundary definition	FAD of the Conodont Hindeodus parvus
Lower boundary GSSP	Meishan, Zhejiang, China; 31.0798°N 119.7058°E
GSSP ratified	2001[5]
Upper boundary definition	Not formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidates	FAD of the Conodont Neospathodus waageni
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)	Mud (Muth) village, Spiti valley, India[6]

The Induan is the first age of the Early Triassic epoch in the geologic timescale, or the lowest stage of the Lower Triassic series in chronostratigraphy. It spans the time between 251.902 Ma and 251.2 Ma (million years ago).[7] The Induan is sometimes divided into the Griesbachian and the Dienerian subages or substages.[8] The Induan is preceded by the Changhsingian (latest Permian) and is followed by the Olenekian.

Induan aged rock layers of the Mikin Formation (Lahaul and Spiti district, India)

The Induan is roughly coeval with the regional Feixianguanian stage of China.

Stratigraphic definitions

Lower part of a stem of the lycopod plant Pleuromeia

The Induan stage was introduced into scientific literature by Russian stratigraphers in 1956,[9] who divided the Scythian stage that was used by Western stratigraphers into the Induan and Olenekian stages. The Induan stage is named for the Indus region of India.[10] The Russian subdivision of the Lower Triassic then slowly replaced the one used in the West.

The base of the Induan stage (which is also the base of the Lower Triassic series, the base of the Triassic system and the base of the Mesozoic erathem) is defined as the place in the fossil record where the conodont species Hindeodus parvus first appears, or at the end of the negative δ¹⁸O anomaly after the big extinction event at the Permian-Triassic boundary. The global reference profile of the base of the Induan is situated in Meishan, Changxing County, China.[11]

The top of the Induan stage (the base of the Olenekian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Meekoceras gracilitatis.

Though the Induan is an unusually short age at this point in the geologic timescale, its million years' extent still contains five ammonite biozones in the boreal domain and four ammonite biozones in the Tethyan domain.

Marine black shale deposits are common especially during the Dienerian substage of the Induan. These point to low oxygenation in the ocean.[12]

Induan life

The Induan age followed the mass extinction event at the end of the Permian period. Both global biodiversity and community-level (alpha) diversity remained low through much of this stage of the Triassic.[13]

Much of the supercontinent Pangea remained almost lifeless, deserted, hot, and dry. In higher latitudes, the flora during the Griesbachian was gymnosperm dominated but became lycopod dominated (e.g. Pleuromeia) in the Dienerian.[14] This change reflects a shift in global climate from cool and dry in the Griesbachian to hot and humid in the Dienerian and points to an extinction event during the Induan, just ca. 500'000 years after the end-Permian mass extinction event.[15] It led to the extinction of the Permian Glossopteris flora.

The lystrosaurids (below) and the proterosuchids (below) were the only groups of land animals to dominate during the Induan stage. Other animals, such as the ammonoids, insects, and the tetrapods (cynodonts, amphibians, reptiles, etc.) remained rare and terrestrial ecosystems did not recover for some 30 million years.[13] Both the seas and much of the freshwater during the Induan were anoxic, predominantly during the Dienerian subage.[12] Microbial reefs were common, possibly due to lack of competition with metazoan reef builders as a result of the extinction.[16]

Coelacanth Piveteauia from Madagascar

Ray-finned fishes largely remained unaffected by the Permian-Triassic extinction event.[17][18] Many genera show a cosmopolitan (worldwide) distribution during the Induan and Olenekian (e.g. Australosomus, Birgeria, Parasemionotidae, Pteronisculus, Ptycholepidae, Saurichthys). This is well exemplified in the Griesbachian aged fish assemblages of the Wordie Creek Formation (East Greenland), the Dienerian aged assemblages of the Sakamena Formation (Madagascar), Candelaria Formation (Nevada, United States), and Mikin Formation (Himachal Pradesh, India), and the Smithian (Olenekian) aged assemblages of the Vikinghøgda Formation (Spitsbergen, Norway), Thaynes Formation (western United States), and Helongshan Formation (Anhui, China).

Induan Chondrichthyans include hybodonts, neoselachians and a few surviving lineages of eugeneodontid holocephalians, a mainly Palaeozoic group. Cartilaginous fishes were seemingly rare during the Induan.

Crocodile-shaped, marine temnospondyl amphibians (e.g. Aphaneramma, Wantzosaurus) were geographically widespread during the Induan and Olenekian ages. Their fossils are found in Greenland, Spitsbergen, Pakistan and Madagascar.[19]

Fossils of Claraia clarai

The bivalve Claraia was widespread and common in the Panthalassa and Tethys oceans. The geologically oldest oysters (Liostrea) are known from the Induan. They grew on the shells of living ammonoids.[20]

†Ammonoids

†Ammonoidea of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Ambites		worldwide	An gyronitid ammonoid	Ophiceras himalayanum
Gyronites		worldwide	An gyronitid ammonoid
Ophiceras		worldwide	An ophiceratid ammonoid
Otoceras		worldwide	An otoceratid ammonoid

†Conodonts

†Conodonta of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Hindeodus parvus		worldwide	index fossil for the base of the Triassic	Hindeodus parvus

Cartilaginous fishes

Chondrichthyes of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Caseodus	Carboniferous to Early Triassic	United States, Canada	A eugeneodontid holocephalian (caseodontid)	Caseodus Fadenia Listracanthus Parahelicampodus
Fadenia	Carboniferous to Early Triassic	United States, Canada, Greenland	A eugeneodontid holocephalian (caseodontid)
Lissodus	Early Triassic to Early Cretaceous	South Africa, Greenland, Svalbard	A hybodontiform elasmobranch
Listracanthus	Carboniferous to Early Triassic	Canada	A chondrichthyan with uncertain affinities, known primarily from their feather-like denticles.
Parahelicampodus	Early Triassic	Greenland	A eugeneodontid holocephalian (edestid)

Ray-finned fishes

Actinopterygii of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Ardoreosomus	Early Triassic	Nevada, United States	A non-neopterygian	Birgeria Bobasatrania Saurichthys
Australosomus	Early Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar	A non-neopterygian
Birgeria	Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar	A non-neopterygian
Bobasatrania	Lopingian to Middle Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar, Canada	A non-neopterygian
Boreosomus	Early Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar	A non-neopterygian
Candelarialepis	Early Triassic	Nevada, United States	A neopterygian
Helmolepis	Early Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar	A platysiagid
Pteronisculus	Early Triassic to Middle Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar, United States	A non-neopterygian
Saurichthys	Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar	A non-neopterygian
Watsonulus	Early Triassic	Madagascar	A neopterygian

Coelacanths

Actinistia of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Coelacanthus banffensis	Early Triassic	Canada	A coelacanth.
Laugia	Early Triassic	Greenland	A coelacanth
Piveteauia	Early Triassic	Madagascar	A small coelacanth
Rhabdoderma	Carboniferous to Early Triassic	Madagascar	A coelacanth
Sassenia	Early Triassic	Greenland	A coelacanth
Whiteia	Early Triassic	Greenland, Madagascar, Canada	A coelacanth

Lungfishes

Dipnoi of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Beltanodus	Early Triassic	Madagascar		Paraceratodus
Microceratodus	Early Triassic	Angola and Madagascar
Paraceratodus	Early Triassic	Madagascar
Ptychoceratodus	Early Triassic	Australia

†Temnospondyls

Temnospondyli of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Aphaneramma	Early Triassic	Pakistan; Madagascar	A trematosaurid stereospondyl amphibian	Aphaneramma Banksiops Broomistega Cryobatrachus Lapillopsis Lyddekerina Micropholis stowi Nanolania anatopretia Watsonisuchus
Banksiops	Early Triassic	Australia	A brachyopid stereospondyl amphibian.
Broomistega		Beaufort Group, Karoo Basin, South Africa	A genus of stereospondyl amphibian in the family Rhinesuchidae.
Chomatobatrachus	Early Triassic	Knocklofty Formation, Australia	A lydekkerinid stereospondyl amphibian.
Cryobatrachus	Early Triassic	Lower Fremouw Formation, Antarctica	A lydekkerinid stereospondyl amphibian.
Deltacephalus	Early Triassic	Middle Sakamena Formation, Madagascar	A lydekkerinid stereospondyl amphibian.
Edingerella	Induan to Smithian	Madagascar	A capitosaurian amphibian closely related to Watsonisuchus.
Eolydekkerina	Early Triassic	Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone, Katberg Formation, South Africa	A lydekkerinid stereospondyl amphibian.
Keratobrachyops	Early Triassic	Queensland, Australia	A brachyopomorph stereospondyl amphibian. A possible synonym of the closely related genus Bothriceps.
Lapillopsis		Arcadia Formation, Australia	A basal stereospondyl amphibian in the family Lapillopsidae.
Lydekkerina	Early Triassic	South Africa; Australia.	A lydekkerinid stereospondyl amphibian.
Manubrantlia		West Bengal, India	A basal stereospondyl amphibian in the family Lapillopsidae.
Micropholis stowi	Early Triassic	Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone, Karoo Basin, South Africa	A genus of dissorophoid temnospondyl in the family Micropholidae. It was previously included in Amphibamidae along with other micropholids. However, a number of analyses recover Micropholidae as a distinct clade of derived non-olsoniform dissorophoids.
Nanolania		Australia	A stereospondyl amphibian in the family Rhytidosteidae.
Rewana		Australia	A stereospondyl amphibian in the family Rhytidosteidae.
Rotaurisaurus	Early Induan to Early Olenekian	Knocklofty Formation, Tasmania	A basal stereospondyl amphibian in the family Lapillopsidae.
Rhytidosteus	Early Triassic	Astrakhan Oblast, Russia	A rhytidosteid stereospondyl amphibian.
Sangaia	Early Triassic	Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil	A stereospondyl amphibian in the family Rhytidosteidae.
Thabanchuia		South Africa	A dvinosaurian amphibian within the family Tupilakosauridae.
Wantzosaurus	Early Triassic	Greenland; Madagascar	A trematosaurid stereospondyl amphibian
Watsonisuchus	Early Triassic	Australia; South Africa	A capitosaurian amphibian
Xenobrachyops	Early Triassic	Queensland, Australia	A brachyopid stereospondyl amphibian.

†Chroniosuchians

Chroniosuchia of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Axitectum	Early Triassic	Russia	A bystrowianid reptiliomorph	Axitectum Bystrowiana
Bystrowiana	Lopingian to Early Triassic	Russia, China	A reptiliomorph

Lissamphibia

Lissamphibians of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Triadobatrachus	Early Triassic	Madagascar	Triadobatrachus is an extinct genus of salientian frog-like amphibians, including only one known species, Triadobatrachus massinoti. It is the oldest member of the frog lineage known, and an excellent example of a transitional fossil.	Triadobatrachus

†Procolophonomorphs

Procolophonomorpha of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Barasaurus	Lopingian to Early Triassic	Madagascar	An owenettid parareptile.	Owenetta Procolophon
Coletta		South Africa	A procolophonid parareptile, it was similar to owenettids due to its very basal position.
"Eumetabolodon" dongshengensis	Early Triassic	China	A species of procolophonid parareptile, currently classified under the procolophonin genus Eumetabolodon though it is more basal and closely related to Theledectes.
Owenetta	Lopingian to Early Triassic	South Africa	An owenettid parareptile.
Phaanthosaurus		Vokhma Formation. Nizhnii Novgorod, Russia	A basal procolophonid parareptile.
Procolophon	Late Permian to Late Triassic	South Africa	A genus of lizard-shaped parareptile.
Sauropareion		South Africa	A basal procolophonid parareptile.
Saurodektes	Early Induan	South Africa	An owenettid parareptile.
Sauropareion		South Africa	A basal procolophonid parareptile.

Diapsids

Diapsida of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Hovasaurus	Late Permian to Early Triassic	Madagascar	An aquatic tangasaurid younginiform reptile.	Hovasaurus
Kenyasaurus	Early Triassic	Coast Province, southeastern Kenya.	A relatively small, lightly built, general lizard-like reptile, most likely a tangasaurid younginiform but without distinct aquatic adaptations.
Paliguana	Late Permian to Early Triassic	Katberg Formation, South Africa	An an extinct genus of lizard-like lepidosauromorph reptile.

Archosauromorphs

Archosauromorphs of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Kadimakara		Arcadia Formation, Queensland, Australia.	A small basal archosauromorph, probably closely related to Prolacerta.	Prolacerta Proterosuchus
Noteosuchus	early Induan	Katberg Formation, Beaufort Group, South Africa	A basal rhynchosaur, the oldest known to date.
Prolacerta		South Africa, Fremouw Formation, Antarctica	A small, lizard-like, basal archosauromorph, originally thought to be a lepidosauromorph.
Proterosuchus		South Africa	The largest land reptile during the Early Triassic period, equivalent in size to today's Komodo dragons. It looked somewhat similar to a primitive crocodile, and shared many of their modern features like long jaws, powerful neck muscles, short legs and a lengthy tail, while retaining several of its own unique features such as its long legs, and hooked shaped mouth.
Tasmaniosaurus	Induan to Olenekian	Knocklofty Formation, West Hobart, Tasmania	Once believed to be a proterosuchid, this taxon is now believed to have been intermediate between advanced non-archosauriform archosauromorphs such as Prolacerta, and basal archosauriforms such as Proterosuchus. This genus is also notable being one of the most complete Australian Triassic reptiles known.
Tsylmosuchus	Induan to Olenekian	Southern Urals, Russia	Originally classified as a rauisuchid, Tsylmosuchus has more recently been interpreted as an indeterminate archosauriform. Tsylmosuchus occurred throughout the Olenekian age. Some of the strata from which Tsylmosuchus has been found are Induan in age, making it one of the earliest archosaurs.

Therapsids

Therapsids of the Induan
Taxa	Presence	Location	Description	Images
Galesaurus			A cynodont.	Galesaurus Lystrosaurus murrayi Regisaurus Scaloposaurus Thrinaxodon
Lystrosaurus	Late Permian to Early Triassic	Antarctica, Russia, India and South Africa	A dicynodont. It was the most common group of terrestrial vertebrates during the Early Triassic, for a while 95% of land vertebrates were Lystrosaurus
Regisaurus	Late Permian to Early Triassic	South Africa	A therocephalian.
Scaloposaurus			A therocephalian.
Thrinaxodon	Early Triassic	South Africa, Antarctica	A cat-sized cynodont. Many scientists suggest that the pits on the skull indicate that Thrinaxodon had whiskers and, therefore, probably had a covering of fur. There are suggestions that it was warm-blooded. Even so, it still laid eggs.

References

Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; Vennemann, Torsten; Bagherpour, Borhan; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Goudemand, Nicolas; Schaltegger, Urs (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8 (196): 1–16. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.
McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 22 (10): 548–557. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003. PMID 17919771.
|note5-nudge-down=1 Retallack, G. J.; Veevers, J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants". GSA Bulletin. 108 (2): 195–207. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2007-09-29.
Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004). "Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction". Science. 305 (5683): 506–9. doi:10.1126/science.1097023. PMID 15273391.
Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point". International Commission of Stratigraphy. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale
Tozer E. T. (1965): Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of Arctic Canada: Paper of the Geological Survey of Canada 65:1–14.
Kiparisova & Popov (1956)
The Triassic Timescale, Spencer Lucas (2010), ISBN 9781862392960
Yin Hongfu, Zhang Kexin, Tong Jinnan, Yang Zunyi und Wu Shunbao: '"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)of the Permian-Triassic Boundary." Episodes, 24(2): 102-114, Beijing 2001 ISSN 0705-3797.
Ware et al. (2015): High-resolution biochronology and diversity dynamics of the Early Triassic ammonoid recovery: the Dienerian faunas of the Northern Indian Margin. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440:363-373 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.013
Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2015): Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range). Gondwana Research 27:911-924 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.11.007
Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Scientific Reports 6:28372 https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28372
Foster et al. (2020): Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites. The Depositional record 6. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.97
Romano et al. (2016): Permian–Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolutionBiological Reviews 91:106-147 https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12161
Smithwick F.M., and Stubbs T.L. (2018): Phanerozoic survivors: Actinopterygian evolution through the Permo‐Triassic and Triassic‐Jurassic mass extinction events. Evolution 72:348-362. https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.13421<
Scheyer et al. (2014): Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088987
Hautmann et al. (2017): Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids. Journal of Molluscan Studies 83:253-260 https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyx018

Sources

Brack, P.; Rieber, H.; Nicora, A. & Mundil, R.; 2005: The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale, Episodes 28(4), pp. 233–244.
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. & Smith, A. G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
Kiparisova, Lubov Dmitrievna & Popov, Yurij Nikolaivitch; 1956: Расчленение нижнего отдела триасовой системы на ярусы (Subdivision of the lower series of the Triassic System into stages), Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 109(4), pp 842–845 (in Russian).

External links

GeoWhen Database - Induan
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
Lower Triassic timescale at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy.

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[1] Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; Vennemann, Torsten; Bagherpour, Borhan; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Goudemand, Nicolas; Schaltegger, Urs (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8 (196): 1–16. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.

[McElwain2007-2] McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 22 (10): 548–557. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003. PMID 17919771.

[Retallack1996-3] |note5-nudge-down=1 Retallack, G. J.; Veevers, J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants". GSA Bulletin. 108 (2): 195–207. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2007-09-29.

[Payne2004-4] Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004). "Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction". Science. 305 (5683): 506–9. doi:10.1126/science.1097023. PMID 15273391.

[5] Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–114. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004. Retrieved 8 December 2020.

[GSSP_Web-6] "Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point". International Commission of Stratigraphy. Retrieved 23 December 2020.

[7] ttp://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale

[8] Tozer E. T. (1965): Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of Arctic Canada: Paper of the Geological Survey of Canada 65:1–14.

[9] Kiparisova & Popov (1956)

[10] The Triassic Timescale, Spencer Lucas (2010), ISBN 9781862392960

[11] Yin Hongfu, Zhang Kexin, Tong Jinnan, Yang Zunyi und Wu Shunbao: '"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)of the Permian-Triassic Boundary." Episodes, 24(2): 102-114, Beijing 2001 ISSN 0705-3797.

[doi.org-12] Ware et al. (2015): High-resolution biochronology and diversity dynamics of the Early Triassic ammonoid recovery: the Dienerian faunas of the Northern Indian Margin. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440:363-373 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.013

[SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-13] Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.

[14] Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2015): Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range). Gondwana Research 27:911-924 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.11.007

[15] Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Scientific Reports 6:28372 https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28372

[16] Foster et al. (2020): Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites. The Depositional record 6. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.97

[17] Romano et al. (2016): Permian–Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolutionBiological Reviews 91:106-147 https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12161

[18] Smithwick F.M., and Stubbs T.L. (2018): Phanerozoic survivors: Actinopterygian evolution through the Permo‐Triassic and Triassic‐Jurassic mass extinction events. Evolution 72:348-362. https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.13421<

[19] Scheyer et al. (2014): Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088987

[20] Hautmann et al. (2017): Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids. Journal of Molluscan Studies 83:253-260 https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyx018