Languages of Vanuatu

The Republic of Vanuatu has the world's highest linguistic density per capita.[1]

Languages of Vanuatu
OfficialEnglish, French, Bislama
NationalBislama
Indigenous138 languages, all Oceanic

For a population of 0.3 million,[2] Vanuatu is home to 138 indigenous Oceanic languages.

In addition, modern history has brought new languages, including the country's three official languages: English, French, and Bislama.

Even more languages have been brought by recent migrations (e.g. Samoan, Hakka Chinese, Mandarin Chinese).

A highly multilingual country

Indigenous languages

There are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago (listed below).

Vanuatu is the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world: it currently shows an average of about 1,760 speakers for each indigenous language, and went through a historical low of 565;[1] only Papua New Guinea comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered, with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable to extinction.[3]

Bislama

Bislama, a creole language derived from English, similar to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and other nearby creoles, is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu, that is, the residents of Port Vila and Luganville; it is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands.

In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009.[4]

Out of the three official languages, Bislama is the most spoken in Vanuatu, followed by English, and lastly French.

English and French

From the times when Vanuatu was an English-French condominium, there is still an unofficial separation line between regions where English or French are taught at school. English is the first language of about 2% of the population,[5] up from about 1% in 1995.[6] Based on the number of sufficiently educated adults, about 62% of the population speaks English as a second language.[7] French is the first language of 0.6% of the population,[5] down from more than 3% if SIL's figures are comparable.[6] About 31% of the population can at least read and write simple sentences in French.[8]

The majority of the country's population (63.2% in 2009)[4] speak an indigenous language as their first language, with Bislama as a second language. As for English and French, they belong to a third circle, in spite of their official status.

List of Vanuatu’s indigenous languages

Vanuatu is home to more than a hundred indigenous languages: a recent count lists 138.[9] Among them, three became extinct in recent decades. Many are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo and Malakula are linguistically the most diverse, with about two dozen languages each.

Some language names refer to networks of dialects rather than unified languages. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum spoken across several islands in Malampa Province. In such cases, the decision as to how many languages should be counted is notoriously difficult, and sometimes the object of controversy. The number of 112 listed below may differ from other counts proposed in the literature, depending partly on these difficulties.[10]

All indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Oceanic. Three are Polynesian languages of the Futunic group: Emae, Mele-Fila and Futuna-Aniwa. The remaining languages belong to these three groups of the Southern Oceanic branch of Oceanic:

Ethnologue

Below is the Ethnologue's list of most of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu, which are still spoken or were until recently.[11] It provides links to corresponding Ethnologue entries and to an OLAC list of media resources on the language.[12]

Tip: Click on the column title to change the sort order.

LanguageEthn.OLACOther namesSpeakers % of total
population
RegionFamilyNotes
AkeitsrtsrTasiriki650 0.2404Espiritu SantoNCV
Amblongalmalm300 0.1109Espiritu SantoNCV
Anejom̃atyatyAneityum900 0.3328AneityumSV
AoreaoraorExtinct 0.0000Espiritu Santo, AoreNCV
Apmaappapp7,800 2.8846PentecostNCV
Arakiakrakr8 0.0030ArakiNCVMoribund
Auluaaulaul750 0.2774MalekulaNCV
AvavatmbtmbKatbol700 0.2589MalekulaNCV
AxambahbahbAhamb750 0.2774MalekulaNCV
Baetorabtrbtr1,330 0.4919MaewoNCV
BakibkibkiBurumba, Paki350 0.1294EpiNCV
BierebobnkbnkBonkovia-yevali800 0.2959EpiNCV
BieriabrjbrjBieri, Vovo, Wowo70 0.0259EpiNCVEndangered
BurmbarvrtvrtBanan Bay, Vartavo900 0.3328MalekulaNCV
Butmas-TurbnrbnrAti520 0.1923Espiritu SantoNCV
Central Maewomwomwo1,400 0.5177MaewoNCV
DaakieptvptvPort-Vato1,300 0.4808AmbrymNCV
DaakakabpabpaBaiap, South Ambrym1,200 0.4438AmbrymNCV
Dixon Reefdixdix50 0.0185MalekulaNCVShifting
DorigwwowwoWetamut300 0.1109Banks Islands (Gaua)NCV
Emaemmwmmw400 0.1479Shepherd Islands (Emae)Polynesian
Etonetnetn500 0.1849EfateNCV
FortsenalfrtfrtKiai450 0.1664Espiritu SantoNCV
Futuna-AniwafutfutWest Futuna1,500 0.5547Futuna, AniwaPolynesian
HanolmllmlRaga6,500 2.4038PentecostNCV
HiwhiwhiwHiu280 0.1035Torres Islands (Hiw)NCV
IfoiffiffExtinct 0.0000ErromangoSV
Kwameratnktnk3,500 1.2944TannaSV
Korokrfkrf250 0.0925Banks Islands (Gaua)NCV
LamenulmulmuLamen, Varmali850 0.3143Epi, LamenNCV
LakonlknlknLakona; Vurē800 0.2959Banks Islands (Gaua)NCV
LamappswpswPort Sandwich1,200 0.4438MalekulaNCV
LarevatlrvlrvLaravat680 0.2515MalekulaNCV
Lehalitqltql200 0.0740Banks Islands (Ureparapara)NCV
LelepalpalpaHavannah Harbour400 0.1479Lelepa, EfateNCV
LemeriglrzlrzSasar2 0.0007Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)NCVMoribund
Lenakeltnltnl11,500 4.2529TannaSV
LetemboinmsnmsSmall Nambas800 0.2959MalekulaNCV
LewolwwlwwVarsu2,200 0.8136EpiNCV
LonwolwolcrccrcWest Ambrym1,200 0.4438AmbrymNCV
Lorediakarkarlnnlnn850 0.3143Espiritu SantoNCV
Lo-TogalhtlhtLoh, Toga580 0.2145Torres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua)NCV
LöyöpurrurrLehalurup240 0.0888Banks Islands (Ureparapara)NCV
MaemmemmeDirak1,000 0.3698MalekulaNCV
Maiimmmmmm180 0.0666EpiNCV
MalfaxalmlxmlxNa’ahai600 0.2219MalekulaNCV
Malua BaymllmllMiddle Nambas500 0.1849MalekulaNCV
Maragusmrsmrs15 0.0055MalekulaNCV
Maskelynesklvklv1,100 0.4068Malekula, Maskelynes IslandsNCV
MaveamkvmkvMav̋ea, Mafea34 0.0126MaveaNCV
Mele-FilamxemxeIfira-Mele3,500 1.2944Efate, Mele, IfiraPolynesian
Mereilmblmb400 0.1479Espiritu SantoNCV
Morouasmrpmrp150 0.0555Espiritu SantoNCV
Motamttmtt750 0.2774Banks Islands (Mota)NCV
Mpotovoromvtmvt430 0.1590MalekulaNCV
MwerlapmrmmrmMerlav1,100 0.4068Banks Islands (Merelava)NCV
MwesenmsnmsnMosina10 0.0037Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)NCV
MwotlapmlvmlvMotlav2,100 0.7766Banks Islands (Motalava)NCV
NahavaqsnssnsSouth West Bay700 0.2589MalekulaNCV
Nakanamangallpllp9,500 3.5133Efate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa)NCV
NamakuranmknmkMakura3,750 1.3868Efate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki)NCV
NamanlzllzlLitzlitz15 0.0055MalekulaNCV
Narangonrgnrg160 0.0592Espiritu SantoNCV
Nasariannvhnvh5 0.0018MalekulaNCV
Navutnswnsw520 0.1923Espiritu SantoNCV
Nese160 0.0592MalekulaNCV
NeververlgklgkLingarak1,250 0.4623MalekulaNCV
NindemwimwiLabo1,100 0.4068MalekulaNCV
NisvaiVetbon140 0.0518MalekulaNCVUnesco
Nokukunkknkk160 0.0592Espiritu SantoNCV
North Tannatnntnn5,000 1.8491TannaSV
North Ambrymmmgmmg5,250 1.9416AmbrymNCV
Northeast AmbaeombombLolovoli; Aoba5,000 1.8491AmbaeNCV
NumetgstgsTarasag700 0.2589Banks Islands (Gaua)NCV
Olratolrolr3 0.0011Banks Islands (Gaua)NCV
PaamapaapaaPaamese6,000 2.2189PaamaNCV
Piamatsinaptrptr150 0.0555Espiritu SantoNCV
Polonombaukplbplb220 0.0814Espiritu SantoNCV
Repanbitiprpnrpn90 0.0333MalekulaNCV
RereppgkpgkPangkumu, Tisman380 0.1405MalekulaNCV
RoriargargaMores75 0.0277Espiritu SantoNCV
SaasaxsaxSa2,500 0.9245PentecostNCV
SakaoskuskuHog Harbour, N'kep4,000 1.4793Espiritu Santo, SakaoNCV
Shark Bayssvssv450 0.1664Espiritu Santo, LitaroNCV
SieergergSe, Erromanga1,900 0.7027ErromangoSV
SkeskeskeSeke300 0.1109PentecostNCV
South EfateerkerkErakor, Nafsan6,000 2.2189EfateNCV
Southeast Ambrymtvktvk3,700 1.3683AmbrymNCV
Southwest Tannanwinwi5,000 1.8491TannaSV
SowaswwswwExtinct 0.0000PentecostNCV
SungwadiamrbmrbMarino; North Maewo500 0.1849MaewoNCV
TamambomlamlaMalo; Tamabo4,000 1.4793MaloNCV
Tambotalotlstls50 0.0185Espiritu SantoNCV
Tangoatgptgp800 0.2959TangoaNCV
Tasmatetmttmt150 0.0555Espiritu SantoNCV
Tialemnlmnl400 0.1479Espiritu SantoNCV
Tolomakotlmtlm900 0.3328Espiritu SantoNCV
Tutubatmitmi500 0.1849Espiritu Santo, TutubaNCV
UnuaonuonuOnua520 0.1923MalekulaNCV
Urauuruur6 0.0022ErromangoSV
Uripiv-Wala-Rano-AtchinupvupvUripiv9,000 3.3284MalekulaNCV
Valpeivlpvlp300 0.1109Espiritu SantoNCV
Vaovaovao1,900 0.7027Vao, MalekulaNCV
V’ënen TautnmbnmbBig Nambas3,350 1.2389MalekulaNCV
Vera’avravraVatrata500 0.1849Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)NCV
VinmavisvnmvnmNeve’ei500 0.1849MalekulaNCV
VolowmlvmlvValuwaExtinct 0.0000Banks Islands (Mota Lava)NCV
Vunapuvnpvnp380 0.1405Espiritu SantoNCV
VurësmsnmsnVureas, Mosina2,000 0.7396Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)NCV
Wailapawlrwlr100 0.0370Espiritu SantoNCV
West AmbaenndnndDuidui8,700 3.2174AmbaeNCV
Whitesandstnptnp7,500 2.7736TannaSV
Wusiwsiwsi300 0.1109Espiritu SantoNCV

François et al. (2015)

The following list of 138 Vanuatu languages is from François et al. (2015:18-21).

No.LanguageOther namesSpeakersEthnologueISO 639-3Region
1HiwHiu280hiwhiwTorres Islands (Hiw)
2Lo-TogaLoh, Toga580lhtlhtTorres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua)
3Lehali200tqltqlBanks Islands (Ureparapara)
4LöyöpLehalurup240urrurrBanks Islands (Ureparapara)
5MwotlapMotlav2100mlvmlvBanks Islands (Motalava)
6VolowValuwa1mlvmlvBanks Islands (Motalava)
7Mota750mttmttBanks Islands (Mota)
8LemerigSasar2lrzlrzBanks Islands (Vanua Lava)
9Vera'aVatrata500vravraBanks Islands (Vanua Lava)
10VurësVureas, Mosina2000msnmsnBanks Islands (Vanua Lava)
11MwesenMosina10msnmsnBanks Islands (Vanua Lava)
12NumeTarasag700tgstgsBanks Islands (Gaua)
13DorigWetamut300wwowwoBanks Islands (Gaua)
14Koro250krfkrfBanks Islands (Gaua)
15Olrat3olrolrBanks Islands (Gaua)
16LakonLakona, Vurē800lknlknBanks Islands (Gaua)
17MwerlapMerlav1100mrmmrmBanks Islands (Merelava)
18SungwadiaMarino, North Maewo500mrbmrbMaewo
19SungwadagaCentral Maewo1400mwomwoMaewo
20BaetoraSouth Maewo, Sungaloge1330btrbtrMaewo
21East AmbaeLolovoli, Aoba5000ombombAmbae
22West AmbaeDuidui8700nndnndAmbae
23RagaHano6500lmllmlPentecost
24Apma7800appappPentecost
25SkeSeke300skeskePentecost
26SaSaa3900saxsaxPentecost
27TolomakoBigbay900tlmtlmEspiritu Santo
28Piamatsina250ptrptrEspiritu Santo
29Vunapu380vnpvnpEspiritu Santo
30Valpei300vlpvlpEspiritu Santo
31Nokuku250nkknkkEspiritu Santo
32MeriTasmate, Oa300tmttmtEspiritu Santo
33WusiKula350wsiwsiEspiritu Santo
34Bura300Espiritu Santo
35MereiTiale, Lametin400lmb, mnllmb, mnlEspiritu Santo
36MoresKo200mrpmrpEspiritu Santo
37AndeMorouas500Espiritu Santo
38ToksikiSoisoru, Roria200rgargaEspiritu Santo
39KiaiFortsenal450frtfrtEspiritu Santo
40Moiso100Espiritu Santo
41Kene300Espiritu Santo
42Daruru100Espiritu Santo
43AkeiTasiriki4000tsrtsrEspiritu Santo
44Retlatur100Espiritu Santo
45WailapaAle500wlrwlrEspiritu Santo
46FarsafNarango, Nambel400nrgnrgEspiritu Santo
47VaravaraAmblong, Aje300almalmEspiritu Santo
48Narmoris220plbplbEspiritu Santo
49BiliruTambotalo3tlstlsEspiritu Santo
50Atin120Espiritu Santo
51AtiPolonombauk, Meris85Espiritu Santo
52Farnanto100Espiritu Santo
53SeFanafo20Espiritu Santo
54SiniaNavut520nswnswEspiritu Santo
55Butmas-TurAti, Farafi520bnrbnrEspiritu Santo
56NgenShark Bay450ssvssvEspiritu Santo, Litaro
57TholpNethalp0Espiritu Santo
58SakaoHog Harbour, Nkep4000skuskuEspiritu Santo
59MaveaMav̋ea, Mafea34mkvmkvEspiritu Santo, Mavea
60Tutuba500tmitmiEspiritu Santo, Tutuba
61Aore0aoraorEspiritu Santo, Aore
62TamamboMalo, Tamabo4000mlamlaEspiritu Santo, Malo
63TangoaMovono370tgptgpEspiritu Santo, Tangoa
64Araki8akrakrEspiritu Santo, Araki
65AxambAhamb750ahbahbMalakula
66LendamboiSmall Nambas, Letemboi800nmsnmsMalakula
67Nasvang275Malakula
68Sörsörian3Malakula
69Avok500Malakula, Avok
70UliveoMaskelynes1100klvklvMalakula, Maskelynes
71Port SandwichLamap1200pswpswMalakula
72NisvaiVetbon200Malakula
73BurmbarBanam Bay, Vartavo900vrtvrtMalakula
74Mbwenelang<10Malakula
75Aulua750aulaulMalakula
76NioleanRepanbitip90rpnrpnMalakula
77RerepPangkumu, Tisman380pgkpgkMalakula
78UnuaOnua520onuonuMalakula
79Vivti<5Malakula
80Nitita<5Malakula
81AvavaKatbol, Navava, Bangsa’700tmbtmbMalakula
82NeververLingarak, Nevwervwer1250lgklgkMalakula
83LitzlitzNaman15lzllzlMalakula
84UripivUripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin, Northeast Malakula9000upvupvMalakula, Atchin, Uripiv
85Rutan?Malakula
86BotovroMpotovoro430mvtmvtMalakula
87Vao1900vaovaoMalakula, Vao
88Alovas?Malakula
89Vovo475Malakula
90NeseMatanvat160Malakula
91Najit<5Malakula
92Malua BayMiddle Nambas500mllmllMalakula
93Njav10Malakula
94TiraxMae, Dirak1000mmemmeMalakula
95V'ënen TautBig Nambas3350nmbnmbMalakula
96TapeMaragus15mrsmrsMalakula
97LarëvatLaravat, Larevat680lrvlrvMalakula
98Neve'eiVinmavis500vnmvnmMalakula
99Nivat<10Malakula
100Nasarian5nvhnvhMalakula
101AveteianDixon Reef50dixdixMalakula
102NindeLabo1100mwimwiMalakula
103NahavaqSouth West Bay, Siesip700snssnsMalakula
104Nāti25Malakula
105Naha'aiMalvaxal, Malfaxal600mlxmlxMalakula
106Navwien5Malakula
107North Ambrym5250mmgmmgAmbrym
108OrkonFanbak30Ambrym
109Southeast Ambrym3700tvktvkAmbrym
110DaakiePort Vato1300ptvptvAmbrym
111DaakakaSouth Ambrym, Baiap1200bpabpaAmbrym
112Dalkalaen1000Ambrym
113RaljagoWest Ambrym, Lonwolwol<10crccrcAmbrym
114PaamaPaamese6000paapaaPaama
115LamenLamenu, Varmali850lmulmuEpi, Lamen
116LewoVarsu2200lwwlwwEpi
117BiereboBonkovia-Yevali900bnkbnkEpi
118BakiBurumba, Paki350bkibkiEpi
119MkirMaii180mmmmmmEpi
120BieriaBieri, Vovo, Wowo25brjbrjEpi
121NamakuraMakura, Namakir3750nmknmkEfate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki)
122EmaeMakatea400mmwmmwShepherd Islands (Emae)
123Nakanamanga9500llpllpEfate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa)
124LelepaHavannah Harbour400lpalpaEfate, Lelepa
125Eton500etnetnEfate
126South EfateErakor6000erkerkEfate
127Mele-FilaIfira-Mele3500mxemxeEfate, Mele, Ifira
128SieSe, Sie, Erromanga1900ergergErromango
129Ura6uuruurErromango
130Utaha0iffiffErromango
131North Tanna5000tnntnnTanna
132LenakelNetvaar11500tnltnlTanna
133Southwest TannaNawal5000nwinwiTanna
134WhitesandsNarak7500tnptnpTanna
135KwameraNafe, Nɨfe3500tnktnkTanna
137Anejom̃Aneityum900atyatyAneityum
138Futuna-AniwaWest Futuna1500futfutFutuna, Aniwa

Notes

  1. See François et al. (2015:8-9); and also Crowley (2000:50); François (2012:86).
  2. The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu”, CIA World Factbook).
  3. Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-19-515246-3.
  4. François (2012:104).
  5. “Vanuatu”CIA World Factbook.
  6. “Languages of Vanuatu” – 2013 archive from Ethnologue.
    Note: the “current” Ethnologue figure for English first language speakers is sourced from the CIA World Factbook.
  7. David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2003
    David Crystal, English as a Global Language, 2003.
    Note: Both books are by the same author and use the same source data. Either way, this is the reference Ethnologue uses. Note that Ethnologue arrives at a total figure by adding estimates for L1 and L2 speakers from different years, even though these figures are incomparable due to significant population growth in the intervening period.
  8. Estimation des francophones dans le monde en 2015.
    Note: the figures don't quite seem to match, but this is Ethnologue's source.
  9. See François et al. (2015).
  10. Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015:4-7).
  11. This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015:18-21) for a list of 138 items.
  12. The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry.

References

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.