VOC Opperhoofden in Japan

VOC Opperhoofden in Japan were the chief traders of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC in old-spelling Dutch, literally "United East Indian Company") in Japan during the period of the Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Edo period.

The "trade pass" (Dutch: handelspas) issued in the name of Tokugawa Ieyasu. The text commands: "Dutch ships are allowed to travel to Japan, and they can disembark on any coast, without any reserve. From now on this regulation must be observed, and the Dutch left free to sail where they want throughout Japan. No offenses to them will be allowed, such as on previous occasions" – dated August 24, 1609 (Keichō 14, 25th day of the 6th month); n.b., the goshuin (御朱印) identifies this as an official document bearing the shogun's scarlet seal.

Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head[man]'. In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a factor, i.e. agent. The Japanese called the Dutch chief factors kapitan (from Portuguese capitão).

The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602 by the States-General of the Netherlands to carry out colonial activities in Asia. The VOC enjoyed unique success in Japan, in part because of the ways in which the character and other qualities of its Opperhoofden were perceived to differ from other competitors.

Trading posts or factories
Topographical map of the bay of Hirado in 1621. To the right on the shore-line, the Dutch East India Company trading post is marked with the red-white-blue flag of the Netherlands. To the far left, somewhat back from the shore-line, notice the white flag with the red cross, the St George's Cross of England at the East India Company trading post -- drawing, 1621.

Hirado, 1609–1639
View of VOC compound at Hirado island - west coast of Kyūshū -- engraving, circa 1669.

The first VOC trading outpost in Japan was on the island of Hirado off the coast of Kyūshū. Permission for establishing this permanent facility was granted in 1609 by the first Tokugawa-shōgun Ieyasu; but the right to make use of this convenient location was revoked in 1639.

Dejima, 1639–1860
Main article: Dejima
An imagined bird's-eye view of Dejima's layout and structures. Note the island's fan-shape. Japanese wood-block print made by Toshimaya Bunjiemon in 1780.

In 1638, the harsh Sakoku ("closed door" policy) was ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate; and by 1641, the VOC had to transfer all of its mercantile operations to the small man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor. The island had been built for the Portuguese, but they had been forced to abandon it and all contacts with Japan. Only the Dutch were permitted to remain after all other Westerners had been excluded.

The Dutch presence in Japan was closely monitored and controlled. For example, each year the VOC had to transfer the opperhoofd. Each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun (Dutch missions to Edo). The VOC traders had to be careful not to import anything religious; and they were not allowed to bring any females, nor to bury their dead ashore. They were largely free to do as they pleased on the island; but they were explicitly ordered to work on Sunday.

For nearly 200 years a series of VOC traders lived, worked and seemed to thrive in this confined location.

In 1799 the VOC went bankrupt. The trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indian government at Batavia, with an interruption during the English occupation of Java, during which the English (Stamford Raffles) unsuccessfully tried to capture Dejima. After the creation of the Kingdom of The Netherlands (1815) the trade with Japan came under the administration of the Minister of the Colonies by way of the Governor General in Batavia. The directors of the trade (Opperhoofd) became colonial civil servants. From 1855 the director of the trade with Japan, J.H. Donker Curtius, became 'Dutch Commissioner in Japan' with orders to conclude a treaty with Japan. He succeeded in 1855 to conclude a convention, changed into a treaty in January 1856. In 1857 he concluded a commercial paragraph in addition to the treaty of 1856, thus concluding the first western treaty of friendship and commerce with Japan. His successor, J.K. de Wit was Dutch Consul General in Japan, though still a colonial civil servant. In 1862 the Dutch representation in Japan was transferred to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. This change was effected in Japan in 1863, Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek becoming Consul General and Political Agent in Japan.

List of chief traders at Hirado

Hirado is a small island just off the western shore of the Japanese island of Kyūshū. In the early 17th century, Hirado was a major center of foreign trade and included British, Chinese, and other trading stations along with the Dutch one, maintained and operated by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) after 1609. The serial leaders of this VOC trading enclave or factory at Hirado were:

  1. Jacques Specx, 20 September 1609 – 28 August 1612
  2. Hendrick Brouwer, 28 August 1612 – 6 August 1614
  3. Jacques Specx, 6 August 1614 – 29 October 1621
  4. Leonardt Camps, 29 October 1621 – 21 November 1623
  5. Cornelis van Nijenrode, 21 November 1623 – 1631
  6. Pieter Stamper, 1631
  7. Cornelis van Nijenrode, 1631 – 31 January 1633
  8. Pieter van Sante, 31 January 1633 – 6 September 1633
  9. Nicolaes Couckebacker, 6 September 1633 – 1635[1]
  10. Maerten Wesselingh (or Hendrick Hagenaer), 1635–1637
  11. Nicolaes Couckebacker, 1637 – 3 February 1639[2]
  12. François Caron, 3 February 1639 – 13 February 1641[3]

List of chief traders at Dejima
Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting.
Pieter Albert Bik, main Dutch chief in Japan, 1842-1845, by Johann Peter Berghaus

Dejima (出島) was a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki. This island was a Dutch trading post during Japan's period of maritime restrictions (海禁, kaikin, 1641–1853) during the Edo period. The serial leaders of this VOC trading enclave or "factory" at Dejima were:

  1. Maximiliaen Le Maire: 14 February 1641 - 30 October 1641 Le Maire was the first "new" chief trader at Dejima[4]
  2. Jan van Elseracq: 1 November 1641 - 29 October 1642[5]
  3. Pieter Anthoniszoon Overtwater: 29 October 1642 - 1 August 1643[6]
  4. Jan van Elseracq: 1 August 1643 - 24 November 1644[7]
  5. Pieter Anthonijszoon Overtwater: 24 November 1644 - 30 November 1645[8]
  6. Renier van Tzum: 30 November 1645 - 27 October 1646[9]
  7. Willem Verstegen [Versteijen]: 28 October 1646 - 10 October 1647[10]
  8. Frederick Coyett: 3 November 1647 - 9 December 1648[11]
  9. Dircq Snoecq: 9 December 1648 - 5 November 1649[12]
  10. Anthonio van Brouckhorst: 5 November 1649 - 25 October 1650
  11. Pieter Sterthemius: 25 October 1650 - 3 November 1651
  12. Adriaen van der Burgh: 1 November 1651 - 3 November 1652
  13. Frederick Coyett: 4 November 1652 - 10 November 1653
  14. Gabriel Happart: 4 November 1653 - 31 October 1654
  15. Leonard Winninx: 31 October 1654 - 23 October 1655
  16. Joan Boucheljon: 23 October 1655 - 1 November 1656
  17. Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 1 November 1656 - 27 October 1657
  18. Joan Boucheljon: 27 October 1657 - 23 October 1658
  19. Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 22 October 1658 - 4 November 1659
  20. Joan Boucheljon: 4 November 1659 - 26 October 1660
  21. Hendrick Indijck: 26 October 1660 - 21 November 1661
  22. Dirck van Lier: 11 November 1661 - 6 November 1662
  23. Hendrick Indijck: 6 November 1662 - 20 October 1663
  24. Willem Volger: 20 October 1663 - 7 November 1664
  25. Jacob Gruijs: 7 November 1664 - 27 October 1665
  26. Willem Volger: 28 October 1665: - 27 October 1666
  27. Daniel Six: 18 October 1666 - 6 November 1667
  28. Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 6 November 1667 - 25 October 1668
  29. Daniel Six [Sicx]: 25 October 1668 - 14 October 1669
  30. François de Haze: 14 October 1669 - 2 November 1670
  31. Martinus Caesar: 2 November 1670 - 12 November 1671
  32. Johannes Camphuys: 22 October 1671 - 12 November 1672[13]
  33. Martinus Caesar: 13 November 1672 - 29 October 1673
  34. Johannes Camphuys: 29 October 1673 - 19 October 1674[13]
  35. Martinus Caesar: 20 October 1674 - 7 November 1675
  36. Johannes Camphuys: 7 November 1675 - 27 October 1676[13]
  37. Dirck de Haze: 27 October 1676 - 16 October 1677
  38. Albert Brevincq: 16 October 1677 - 4 November 1678
  39. Dirck de Haas: 4 November 1678 - 24 October 1679
  40. Albert Brevincq: 24 October 1679 - 11 November 1680
  41. Isaac van Schinne: 11 November 1680 - 31 October 1681
  42. Hendrick Canzius: 31 October 1681 - 20 October 1682
  43. Andreas Cleyer: 20 October 1682 - 8 November 1683[13]
  44. Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 8 November 1683 - 28 October 1684
  45. Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 25 October 1684 - 7 October 1685[14]
  46. Andreas Cleyer: 17 October 1685 - 5 November 1686[13]
  47. Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 5 November 1686 - 25 October 1687
  48. Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 25 October 1687 - 13 October 1688[14]
  49. Cornelis van Outhoorn: 13 October 1688 - 1 November 1689
  50. Balthasar Sweers: 1 November 1689 - 21 October 1690
  51. Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 21 October 1690 - 09 November 1691[14]
  52. Cornelis van Outhoorn: 9 November 1691 - 29 October 1692
  53. Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 29 October 1692 - 19 October 1693[14]
  54. Gerrit de Heere: 19 October 1693: - 7 November 1694
  55. Hendrik Dijkman: 7 November 1694 - 27 October 1695
  56. Cornelis van Outhoorn: 27 October 1695 - 15 October 1696
  57. Hendrik Dijkman: 15 October 1696 - 3 November 1697
  58. Pieter de Vos: 3 November 1697 - 23 October 1698
  59. Hendrik Dijkman: 23 October 1698 - 12 October 1699
  60. Pieter de Vos: 21 October 1699 - 31 October 1700
  61. Hendrik Dijkman: 31 October 1700 - 21 October 1701
  62. Abraham Douglas: 21 October 1701 - 30 October 1702
  63. Ferdinand de Groot: 9 November 1702 - 30 October 1703
  64. Gideon Tant: 30 October 1703 - 18 October 1704
  65. Ferdinand de Groot: 18 October 1704 - 6 November 1705
  66. Ferdinand de Groot: 26 October 1706 - 15 October 1707
  67. Hermanus Menssingh: 15 October 1707 - 2 November 1708
  68. Jasper van Mansdale: 2 November 1708 - 22 October 1709
  69. Hermanus Menssingh: 22 October 1709 - 10 November 1710
  70. Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn: 10 November 1710 - 31 October 1711
  71. Cornelis Lardijn: 31 October 1711 - 7 November 1713
  72. Cornelis Lardijn: 7 November 1713 - 27 October 1714
  73. Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn: 27 October 1714 -19 October 1715
  74. Gideon Boudaen: 19 October 1715 - 3 November 1716
  75. Joan Aouwer: 3 November 1716 - 24 October 1717
  76. Christiaen van Vrijbergh[e]: 24 October 1717 - 13 October 1718
  77. Joan Aouwer: 13 October 1718 - 21 October 1720
  78. Roeloff Diodati: 21 October 1720 - 9 November 1721
  79. Hendrik Durven: 9 November 1721 - 18 October 1723
  80. Johannes Thedens: 18 October 1723 - 25 October 1725
  81. Joan de Hartogh: 25 October 1725 - 15 October 1726
  82. Pieter Boockestijn: 15 October 1726 - 3 November 1727
  83. Abraham Minnedonk: 3 November 1727 - 20 October 1728
  84. Pieter Boockestijn: 22 October 1728 - 12 October 1729
  85. Abraham Minnedonk: 12 October 1729 - 31 October 1730
  86. Pieter Boockestijn: 31 October 1730 - 7 November 1732
  87. Hendrik van de Bel: 7 November 1732 - 27 October 1733
  88. Rogier de Laver: 27 October 1733 - 16 October 1734
  89. David Drinckman: 16 October 1734 - 4 November 1735
  90. Bernardus Coop [Coopa] à Groen: 4 November 1735 - 24 October 1736
  91. Jan van der Cruijsse: 24 October 1736 - 13 October 1737
  92. Gerardus Bernardus Visscher: 13 October 1737 - 21 October 1739
  93. Thomas van Rhee: 22 October 1739 - 8 November 1740
  94. Jacob van der Waeijen: 9 November 1740 - 28 October 1741
  95. Thomas van Rhee: 29 October 1741 - 17 October 1742
  96. Jacob van der Waeijen: 17 October 1742 - 9 November 1743
  97. David Brouwer: 5 November 1743 - 1 November 1744
  98. Jacob van der Waeijen: 2 November 1744 - 28 December 1745
  99. Jan Louis de Win: 30 December 1745 - 2 November 1746
  100. Jacob Baelde: 3 November 1746 - 25 October 1747
  101. Jan Louis de Win: 28 October 1747 - 11 November 1748
  102. Jacob Baelde: 12 November 1748 - 8 December 1749
  103. Hendrik van Homoed: 8 December 1749 - 24 December 1750
  104. Abraham van Suchtelen: 25 December 1750 - 18 November 1751
  105. Hendrik van Homoed: 19 November 1751 - 5 December 1752
  106. David Boelen: 6 December 1752 - 15 October 1753
  107. Hendrik van Homoed: 16 October 1753 - 3 November 1754
  108. David Boelen: 4 November 1754 - 25 October 1755
  109. Herbert Vermeulen: 25 October 1755 - 12 October 1756
  110. David Boelen: 13 October 1756 - 31 October 1757
  111. Herbert Vermeulen: 1 November 1757 - 11 November 1758
  112. Johannes Reijnouts: 12 November 1758 - 11 November 1760
  113. Marten Huijshoorn: 12 November 1760 - 30 October 1761
  114. Johannes Reijnouts: 31 October 1761 - 2 December 1762
  115. Fredrik Willem Wineke: 3 December 1762 - 6 November 1763
  116. Jan Crans: 7 November 1763 - 24 October 1764
  117. Fredrik Willem Wineke: 25 October 1764 - 7 November 1765
  118. Jan Crans: 8 November 1765 - 31 October 1766
  119. Herman Christiaan Kastens: 1 November 1766 - 20 October 1767
  120. Jan Crans: 21 October 1767 - 8 November 1769
  121. Olphert Elias: 9 November 1769 - 16 November 1770
  122. Daniel Armenault: 17 November 1770 - 9 November 1771
  123. Arend Willem Feith: 10 November 1771 - 3 November 1772
  124. Daniel Armenault [Almenaault]: 4 November 1772 - 22 November 1773
  125. Arend Willem Feith: 23 November 1773 - 10 November 1774
  126. Daniel Armenault [Almenaault]: 11 November 1774 - 28 October 1775
  127. Arend Willem Feith: 28 October 1775 - 22 November 1776
  128. Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23 November 1776 - 11 November 1777
  129. Arend Willem Feith: 12 November 1777 - 28 November 1779
  130. Isaac Titsingh: 29 November 1779 - 5 November 1780
  131. Arend Willem Feith: 6 November 1780 - 23 November 1781
  132. Isaac Titsingh: 24 November 1781 - 26 October 1783
  133. Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 27 October 1783 - _ August 1784
  134. Isaac Titsingh: _ August 1784 - 30 November 1784
  135. Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 0 November 84 - 21 November 1785
  136. Johan Fredrik van Rheede tot de Parkeler: 22 November 1785 - 20 November 1786
  137. Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 21 November 1786 - 30 November 1787
  138. Johan Frederik van Rheede tot de Parkeler: 1 December 1787 - 1 August 1789
  139. Hendrik Casper Romberg: 1 August 1789 - 13 November 1790
  140. Petrus Theodorus Chassé: 13 November 1790 - 13 November 1792
  141. Gijsbert Hemmij: 13 November 1792 - 8 July 1798
  142. Leopold Willem Ras: 8 July 1798 - 17 July 1800
  143. Willem Wardenaar: 16 July 1800 - 14 November 1803
  144. Hendrik Doeff: 14 November 1803 - 6 December 1817
  145. Jan Cock Blomhoff: 6 December 1817 - 20 November 1823
  146. Johan Willem de Sturler: 20 November 1823 - 5 August 1826
  147. Germain Felix Meijlan: 4 August 1826 - 1 November 1830
  148. Jan Willem Frederik van Citters: 1 November 1830 - 30 November 1834
  149. Johannes Erdewin Niemann: 1 December 1834 - 17 November 1838
  150. Eduard Grandisson: 18 November 1838 - _ November 1842
  151. Pieter Albert Bik: _ November 1842 - 31 October 1845
  152. Joseph Henrij Levijssohn: 1 November 1845 - 31 October 1850
  153. Frederik Cornelis Rose: 1 November 1850 - 31 October 1852
  154. Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 2 November 1852 - 28 February 1860 [Donker Curtius became the last in a long list of hardy Dutch Opperhoofden who were stationed at Dejima; and fortuitously, Curtius also became the first of many Dutch diplomatic and trade representatives in Japan during the burgeoning pre-Meiji years.]

References
  1. Historigraphical Institute (Shiryō hensan-jo), University of Tokyo, "Diary of Nicolaes Couckebacker"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
  2. Shiryō, "Diary of Nicolaes Couckebacker"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
  3. Dejima opperhoofden chronology; Caron chronology Archived 17 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine (in German); Boxer, Charles Ralph, ed. (1935). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan & Siam. p. lxii; Shiryō, "Diary of François Caron"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
  4. Shiryō, "Diary of Maximiliaen Le Maire"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  5. Shiryō, "Diary of Jan van Elseracq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  6. Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Anthonisz Overtwater"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  7. Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Jan van Elseracq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  8. Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Anthonisz Overtwater"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  9. Shiryō, "Diary of Renier van Tzum"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  10. Shiryō, "Diary of Willem Verstegen"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  11. Shiryō, "Diary of Frederick Coyet"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  12. Shiryō, "Diary of Dircq Snoecq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
  13. Kornicki, Peter F. "European Japanology at the End of the Seventeenth Century," Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Vol. 56, No. 3 (1993). pp. 510.
  14. Kornicki, p. 507.

Sources
  • Blomhoff, J.C. (2000). The Court Journey to the Shogun of Japan: From a Private Account by Jan Cock Blomhoff. Amsterdam.
  • Blussé, L. et al., eds. (1995–2001) The Deshima [sic] Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Content. Leiden.
  • Blussé, L. et al., eds. (2004). The Deshima Diaries Marginalia 1740-1800. Tokyo.
  • Boxer. C.R. (1950). Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600-1850: An Essay on the Cultural, Artistic, and Scientific Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Den Haag.
  • Caron, F. (1671). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam. London.
  • Clulow, A. (2014). The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounters with Tokugawa Japan. New York.
  • (in Dutch) de Winter, Michiel. (2006). "VOC in Japan: Betrekkingen tussen Hollanders en Japanners in de Edo-periode, tussen 1602-1795" ("VOC in Japan: Relations between the Dutch and Japanese in the Edo-period, between 1602-1795").
  • Doeff, H. (1633). Herinneringen uit Japan. Amsterdam. [Doeff, H. "Recollections of Japan" ISBN 1-55395-849-7]
  • Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. (2000). A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan. Catalog of "400th Anniversary Exhibition Regarding Relations between Japan and the Netherlands," a joint project of the Edo-Tokyo Museum, the City of Nagasaki, the National Museum of Ethnology, the National Natuurhistorisch Museum" and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden, the Netherlands. Tokyo.
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  • Nederland's Patriciaat, Vol. 13 (1923). Den Haag.
  • Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822. London.
  • Siebold, P.F.B. v. (1897). Nippon. Würzburg e Leipzig.
  • Titsingh, I. (1820). Mémoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie régnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon. Paris.
  • Titsingh, I. (1822). Illustrations of Japan; consisting of Private Memoirs and Anecdotes of the reigning dynasty of The Djogouns, or Sovereigns of Japan. London.

See also

Further reading

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