Agriculture in Canada

Farm yard in summer

In the 15th century Samuel de Champlain and Gabriel Sagard recorded that the Iroquois and Huron cultivated the soil for maize or "Indian corn".[2] Maize (Zea mays), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), beans (phaseolus), squash (Cucurbita) and the sunflower (Helianthus annus) were grown throughout agricultural lands in North America by the 16th century. As early as 2300 BC evidence of squash was introduced to the northeastern woodlands region. Archaeological findings from 500 AD have shown corn cultivation in southern Ontario.[3]

Eastern Canada was settled well before the West. Immigration and trading posts came later to Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territories. The early immigrants combined European agricultural and domestication procedures with the indigenous knowledge of the land and animals of the area.

As early as 1605, the French Acadians built dikes in the Maritimes for wheat, flax, vegetables, pasturage and marshland farming.[4] Dairy production is the main contribution of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, along with livestock and mixed farming ventures. A small percentage of land is put into use in fruit farming as well along Nova Scotia's northwest coastal areas. The American Revolution, 1775–1783, and its attendant food decline resulted in 3100 hectares cleared in Newfoundland. In the early 19th century Irish immigrants began arriving who cultivated the land in Newfoundland.[5] A very small percentage of the land is suitable in Newfoundland and Labrador for horticultural or crop production because there is a lot of forested and tundra geography. The province has some dairy production and farming concerns. Following World War II, farm training was available at the Government Demonstration Farm. Bonuses were paid for such things as the purchase of pure-bred sires, land clearing, and agriculture exhibition assistance to name a few. The industry of fish processing for food is the largest agricultural contribution from Newfoundland. Newfoundland fisheries, supply cod for the most part, followed closely by herring, haddock, lobster, rose fish, seals, and whales. The fishing industry depends very heavily upon exports and world conditions.[6]

Ontario farm

Agriculture in the West started with Peter Pond gardening plots at Lake Athabasca in 1778. Although large-scale agriculture was still many years off, Hudson's Bay Company traders, gold rush miners, and missionaries cultivated crops, gardens and raised livestock.[4] The Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut are covered with the Canadian Shield, and rocky outcrops, sub Arctic forest soils, and stony phases make up most of the geography. It is an area of comparatively smaller population and not commercially exploited for the most part. Whaling, prawns, and trapping food processing contribute to agricultural food production here.[7]

In New France hops, hemp and livestock were introduced in 1663. The seigneurial system of farming was adopted in Quebec.[8] Quebec's agricultural sector relies heavily on its fruit and vegetable production. In 1890, a competition began to encourage farmers to improve their farms to achieve the Agricultural Merit Order. County farm improvement contests were begun about 1930 involving over 5,000 farms and their evolution over five years. They have some interests in livestock and mixed farming and dairy as well. From 1947, an artificial insemination and breeding centre has been operating in Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec for breeders clubs.[9][10]

The British enforced Corn (Cereal grains) laws, 1794–1846, protected the British agricultural sector from imports of British North American wheat. The Reciprocity Treaty, 6 June 1854, developed a trade agreement between Canada and the United States which affected trade of wheat grown in Ontario.[11] Northern Ontario is mainly tundra and forested area, whereas southern Ontario has lands suitable for livestock and general farming as well as geography suitable for pasture and dairying industries. Fruit farming can also be found in southern Ontario. Ontario is the largest producer of mixed grains, soybeans and shelled corn in the country.[12] The province is also home to nearly all tobacco farms in Canada, the majority being situated in the Ontario tobacco belt. In the 2011 Canadian Census there were 137 tobacco farms located in Ontario, three in Quebec, and one on Prince Edward Island.[13]

Grain Elevators

Lord Selkirk, founder of the Red River Colony, harvested the first wheat crop in the western prairies in 1814. Red Fife wheat was introduced in 1868. Swine were brought to the Red River colony as early as 1819. The frontier land of southwest Alberta and southeast Saskatchewan were opened to ranching in the 19th century.[14] Manitoba has a combination of mixed grain, livestock, and mixed farming industries in its southernmost areas. Cattle ranching around Lake Manitoba is also quite successful. Northern Manitoba consists of extensive lakes and forested geographical areas.[15] The Dominion Land Act of 1872 offered agricultural pioneers an opportunity to "prove up" a quarter section of land (160 acres/65 hectares) in western Canada for a $10.00 filing fee and three years of improvements combined with residence on the land.[16] Saskatchewan still has cattle ranching along its southwestern corner; grain farming and crops such as wheat, oats, flax, alfalfa, and rapeseed (especially canola) dominate the parkland area. Mixed grain farming, dairy farms, mixed livestock and grazing lands dot the central lowlands region of this prairie province.[17]

Canada Agriculture Museum

Alberta is renowned still for its stampedes, and cattle ranching is a main industry. The agricultural industry is supplemented by livestock and mixed farming and wheat crops. Alberta is the second largest producer of wheat in Canada. Grain and dairying also play a role in the livelihoods of Alberta farmers.[18]

The open parkland area extends across the three prairie provinces: Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Canada's production of wheat, oats, flaxseed, and barley come mainly from this area. Meat processing is the largest industry here, followed by dairy production, breweries, and the subsidiary industry of agricultural implements.[19]

British Columbia is covered in highlands; its eastern boundary is the Rocky Mountains. Agricultural production in British Columbia supplied the gold rush industry, mining and logging industries. Agricultural producers relied on these local markets, following the economic boom and bust of each enterprise respectively. The British Columbia Fruit-Growers' Association was established in 1889 to foster an export market of this commodity.[20] The Canada Agriculture Museum preserves Canadian agricultural history.[21] In 2015, there are approximately 20,000 farms in B.C. that are involved in agricultural activity, such as dairy, livestock, fruit and vegetable farming.[22]

Concrete grain elevator in Alberta

Various factors affect the socio-economic characteristics of Canadian agriculture. The 2006 Census of Agriculture listed seven:[23] Quantity and type of farms; Biogeography: crop and land use areas; land management practices; Quantity of livestock and poultry; Agricultural engineering: Farm machinery and equipment; Farm capital; Farm operating expenses and receipts; Farm-related injuries.

Early in the 21st century, Canadian agronomists were aware of 48 "primary grain, vegetable and fruit crops", based on surface area and value.[24] In 2007, the Canadian Federation of Agriculture broke down into five primary "production sectors" Canadian agriculture according to cash receipts:[25]

1. grains and oilseeds:[26] 34%
2. red meats – livestock:[27] 24%
3. dairy: 12%
4. horticulture: 9%
5. poultry and eggs: 8%

In 2018, Canada was the world's largest producer of rapeseed (20.3 million tonnes), dry pea (3.5 million tonnes) and lentil (2 million tons), the 2nd largest producer of oats in the world (3.4 million tons), the 6th largest world producer of wheat (31.7 million tons) and barley (8.3 million tons), the 7th largest world producer of soy (7.2 million tons), the 10th largest world producer of maize (13.8 million tons) and the 12th largest world producer of potato (5.7 million tonnes). In the same year, the country also produced 688 thousand tons of flax, 505 thousand tons of sugar beet (which is used to produce sugar), 497 thousand tons of tomato, 424 thousand tons of apple, 354 thousand tons of carrots, 341 thousand tons of beans, 311 thousand tons of chickpeas, 236 thousand tons of rye, 240 thousand tons of onion, 219 thousand tons of cabbage, 195 thousand tons of cranberry, 164 thousand tons of blueberry, 173 thousand tons of mustard seed, 138 thousand tons of mushroom and truffle, 120 thousand tons of grape, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.[28]

Grains and oilseeds

See also: Canadian Grain Commission and Canadian Wheat Board

Wheat head close up view

In 1925, Saskatchewan produced over half of the wheat in the Dominion of Canada, threshing in excess of 240,000,000 bushels (6,500,000 metric tons) of wheat.[29] Rapeseed, alfalfa, barley, canola, flax, rye, and oats are other popularly grown grain crops.

Wheat is a staple crop from Canada. To help homesteaders attain an abundance harvest in a foreshortened growing season, varieties of wheat were developed at the beginning of the twentieth century. Red Fife was the first strain; it was a wheat which could be seeded in the fall and sprout in the early spring. Red Fife ripened nearly two weeks sooner and was a harder wheat than other spring wheats. Dr. C. Saunders, experimented further with Red Fife, and developed Mini Wheats, which was resistant to rust and came to maturity within 100 days. Some other types of wheat grown are durum, spelt, and winter wheat.[30] In recent years, Canadian farmers have also begun to grow rice.

The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA) was established in 1935 to provide Federal financial assistance in regard to the global economical crisis. The PFRA provides farmers with land and water resources such as irrigation, soil drifting conservation and small farm water development. The Farm credit program has established the Canadian Farm Loan Act to provide stock bonds and farm improvement loans.[31]

Livestock

Prize Bull

115,000 cattle roamed the southern prairies by 1900. Livestock can include the raising of cows, also commonly called cattle. Recently domestication of the buffalo[32] and elk[33] has initiated a new food industry. Sheep have been raised for both wool and meat.[34] Bovine or pig barns have been a part of livestock culture.[35] Scientists have been making forward steps in swine research giving rise to intensive pig farming. The domestication of various farm animals meant that corresponding industries such as feedlots, animal husbandry and meat processing have also been studied, and developed. Two corporations (Cargill Foods and Brazil-based multinational JBS) control 80 percent of beef processing, and four retailers capture 72 percent of retail sales.[36] From 1921 to 2011, farming operations have become more intensive and specialized. The total number of animal farms in Canada went from 8.1 per 100 inhabitants to 0.6 per 100 inhabitants. During this period, the number of Canadian pigs rose from 3,324,291 to 12,679,104, while the number of pig farms dropped from 452,935 to 7,371.[37] In 2011, the hog industry was the fourth largest in Canada, after canola, dairy products and cattle, with cash receipts of $3.9 billion.[37] The size of farms had also increased substantially, with the national average rising to 1,720 hogs per operation in 2011.[38]

Total Canadian Farm Animals Slaughtered in 2018

Type	2018
Cattle[39]	3,230,200
Calves[39]	234,300
Pigs[40]	21,561,500
Sheep and lambs[40]	704,000
Chickens[41]	775,196,000
Turkeys[41]	20,243,000

Canadian Livestock, 1951 to 2016 (from Statistics Canada[42])

Type	Unit of Measure	1951	2016
Cattle and calves	Number of cattle farms	452,480	75,307
	Number of animals	8,370,991	12,530,730
	Average number of animals per farm	17	166
Number of animals	4,915,987	14,091,503
Average number of animals per farm	14	1,677
Horses	Number of horse farms	451,647	39,164
	Number of animals	1,306,634	291,561
	Average number of animals per farm	3	7
Sheep and lambs	Number of sheep farms	62,566	9,390
	Number of animals	1,478,737	1,054,260
	Average number of animals per farm	24	112
Chickens	Number of chicken farms	427,317	23,910
	Number of animals	64,615,025	145,519,566
	Average number of animals per farm	151	6,086

Horticulture

Vegetable Displays

Horticulture crops, which includes nursery, flowers and fruits, became easier to grow with the development of plant hardiness zones.[44] Apples, pears, plums and prunes, peaches, apricots, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, loganberries and fruit orchards are numerous and reach commercial size in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Niagara Peninsula and Norfolk County of Ontario and Okanagan Valley[45] of British Columbia.

Hazelnuts are harvested in Eastern Canada and British Columbia.[46] Maple syrup and maple sugar, maple butter, and maple taffy are products of Quebec along the St. Lawrence River. The main market for Canadian maple syrup and sugar is the United States.[47] Potatoes are an abundant harvest of the Maritime provinces.[48] Sugar beets and beet root sugar are harvested in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Alberta.[49]

Viticulture

Main article: Canadian wine

Grapevines at Inniskillin, a winery in the Niagara region of Ontario

Viticulture refers to the growing of grapes for the production of wine. Ontario, and British Columbia are the two largest wine-growing regions in Canada, although grapes are also grown in other regions of Canada, including Quebec, and the Maritimes.[50][51][52] In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine.[53] Approximately 62 per cent of all wines produced that year originated from Ontario, while wineries from British Columbia constituted 33 per cent of that years wine production.[53] Canada is the largest producer of ice wine, producing more ice wine than all other countries combined.[54]

In 2015, there were 548 wineries spread across 12,150 hectares (30,000 acres). More than half of Canada's vineyard acreage is situated in Ontario, with 150 vineyards spread across 6,900 hectares (17,000 acres).[54][55] British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout 4,152 hectares (10,260 acres).[55] There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage 808 hectares (2,000 acres) of vineyards in the province.[55] Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages 290 hectares (720 acres) of vineyards in the province.[55]

The Department of Agriculture set out in the British North America Act of 1867 (BNA) states each province may have jurisdiction over agricultural concerns, as well as the Dominion Government may also make law in regard to agriculture. Newfoundland agricultural affairs were dealt with by the Agricultural Division of the Department of Natural Resources at Confederation.[9]

The BNA states that the federal Government has sole authority in coastal and inland fishery matters. Provinces have rights over non-tidal waters and fishing practices there only.[9]

Canadian farms, fisheries and ranches produce a wide variety of crops, livestock, food, feed, fibre, fuel and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals which are dependent upon the geography of the province. In 2001 farms numbered only 246,923 at a size of 676 acres (2.74 km²) as the production of food and fibre for human or livestock sustenance has evolved into intensive and industrial practices.[65][66] As of 2002, wheat constituted the largest crop area at 12.6%. Canadian farmers received a record $36.3 billion in 2001 from livestock, crop sales and program payments.[67] In 2001, the accrued net income of farm operators from farm production amounted to 1,633 million dollars, which amounts to 0.147% of Canada's gross domestic product at market prices which is 1,108,200 million dollars.[66] Fisheries are also playing an important role while forestry plays a secondary role. Canada's evolution has abandoned subsistence techniques and now sees a mere 3% of Canada's population employed as a mechanized industrial farmer who are able feed the rest of the nation's population of 30,689.0 thousand people (2001) as well as export to foreign markets.[68] (Canada's estimated population was 32,777,300 on 1 January 2007).[69]

The marketing and economic movement of Canada's various agriculture commodities has been a challenge. Domestic trade encompasses providing goods within Canada provincially and inter-provincial. Support agencies and services such as storage, railways, warehouses, stores, banking institutions all affect domestic trade. Trade of wheat from the Canada's prairies was monitored by the Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) prior to the privatization and sale of the CWB to foreign interests in 2015. Canada's depression of 1882–1897 brought a low of 64¼ cents per bushel ($24/t) as of 1893. This era during Laurier's administration saw thousands of homesteads cancelled. Wheat prices soared during World War I. In 1928, Canada exported high quantities of wheat, flour, and goods. The depression took its toll on Canada as exports sunk to approximately 40% of their 1928 amount. European markets stopped needing to import Canadian wheat as they started growing their own varieties, and then World War II events put a blockade on trade to European markets. Canada became more of an industrial entity during the time of this industrial revolution, and less of an agricultural nation. Following World War II the United Kingdom entered into contract for a large amount of agricultural commodities such as bacon, cheese, wheat, oats and barley. After the United Kingdom, the United States is Canada's largest external trade partner. Between 1943 and 1953, the average export of Canadian wheat was 347,200,000 bushels (9,449,000 t).[70] The three-year International Wheat Agreement of 1955, which really lasted 6 years, included exports of wheat or flour to 28 of 44 importing countries including Germany, Japan, Belgium, UK, and the Netherlands.[31][70]

Agribusiness are activities of food and fibre production and processing which are not part of the farm operation. This would include the production of farm equipment and fertilizers to aid farm production.[71] Agribusiness also includes the firms that purchase the raw goods from the farm for further processing. The meat packing industry, flour mill, and canning industry would be included in the agribusiness sector processing farm products.[72] A recent growth area in agribusiness is the advent of organized farmland investment funds operating on the model of direct land ownership with rental back to farmers as operators.[73]

According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, these are the classifications of Canadian Agriculture Industries.

Agricultural science began developing new styles of farming and strains of wheat and crops so that farming could become a successful venture. Farming methods were developed at places such as Dominion Experimental Farm,[102] Rosthern Experimental Station,[103] and Bell Farm.[104] From 1914 to 1922, the Better Farming Train travelled around rural of Saskatchewan areas educating pioneer farmers.[105] The 1901 census showed 511,100 farms and the number of farms peaked in 1941 at a record 732,800 farms.[66] The industrial revolution modernised the farming industry as mechanized vehicles replaced the oxen ploughed land or the horse-drawn cart. Farms became much larger, and mechanized evolving towards industrial agriculture.

Farming activities were very labour-intensive before the industrial revolution and the advent of tractors, combines, balers, etc. From the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, a great percentage of the Canadian labour force was engaged in high labour, smaller farming practices. After mechanization, scientific advancement, improved marketing practices farms became more efficient, larger and less labour-intensive. The labour population was freed up and went to industry, government, transportation, trade and finance.[106] Agriculture, stock raising and horticulture employed one-fourth of the Canadian population according to the 1951 census as well as providing products for exports and Canadian manufacturing concerns.[9]

A cultivator pulled by a tractor in Montreal in 1943

The Oliver Chilled Plow, which could cut through the prairie sod, was in use by 1896. Binders which could cut and tie grain for the harvest season and grain elevators for storage were introduced in the late 19th century as well.[107] Plows, tractors, spreaders, combines to name a few are some mechanized implements for the grain crop or horticultural farmer which are labour saving devices. Many Canadian museums such as Reynolds-Alberta Museum will showcase the evolution and variety of farm machinery.

Harvest of Wheat via combine

The depression and drought of the Dirty Thirties was devastating. This drought resulted in a mass exodus of population from the prairies, as well as new agricultural practices such as soil conservation, and crop rotation.[108]

The use of soil conservation practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. Bow River Irrigation Project, Red Deer River Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems.[9] A current project is soil liming at the Land Resource Research Institute.[109][110] Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and stinking smut can be successfully treated with a fungicide. Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer. Tuberculosis in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as chronic wasting disease or transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease.[111] Mad cow disease in cattle[112] and scrapie of sheep[113] are monitored by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

Plants whose traits can be modified to survive a disease or insect have made inroads into Canadian agricultural practices. Cereal rusts which can destroy the majority of areas seeded to wheat, was controlled in 1938 by breeding strains which were rust-resistant. This strain was successful until around 1950, when again a new variety of rust broke out, and again a new species of wheat called Selkirk was developed which was rust resistant.[114] Biotechnology is the center of new research and regulations affecting agriculture this century.[115][116]

To increase the viability of agriculture as an economic lifestyle several improvements have been made by various nationwide educational facilities. Inroads and innovations have been made in the diverse fields of agricultural science, agricultural engineering, agricultural soil science, Sustainable agriculture, Agricultural productivity, agronomy, biodiversity, bioengineering, irrigation and swine research for example. Canadian universities conducting agricultural research include McGill University, Dalhousie University,[117] Université Laval, Université de Montréal, University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, University of Calgary, University of Guelph, University of Manitoba, University of Saskatchewan and University of Prince Edward Island. The Ontario Agricultural College is located at the University of Guelph and the Western College of Veterinary Medicine is located at the University of Saskatchewan.[118] The Atlantic Veterinary College is located at the University of P.E.I.[119] and there are also faculties of veterinary medicine at the University of Calgary[120] and Université de Montréal.[121] BC Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation operates in the province of British Columbia.

• Canadian Census of Agriculture
• Canadian Agricultural Safety Association
• Pesticides in Canada

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Agriculture in Canada.

• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire
• Agriculture - Province of B.C.
• Canada Agriculture Museum
• Soil to Sky: Careers in Canadian Agriculture in Food
• The Archives of Ontario Celebrates Our Agricultural Past, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website