Religion in Indonesia

The history of Islam in Indonesia is complex and reflects the diversity of Indonesian cultures.[4] There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering the Indonesian archipelago as early as the 8th century.[30] Italian explorer, Marco Polo is credited with the earliest known record of a Muslim community around 1297 AD, whom he referred to as a new community of Moorish traders in Perlak, Aceh.[31] Over the 15th and 16th century, the spread of Islam accelerated via the missionary work of Maulana Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sunan Gresik, originally from Samarkand) in Sumatra and Java and Admiral Zheng He (also known as Cheng Ho, from China) in north Java, as well as campaigns led by sultans that targeted Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and various communities, with each trying to carve out a region or island for control. Four diverse and contentious sultanates emerged in northern and southern Sumatra, west and central Java, and southern Kalimantan. The sultans declared Islam as a state religion and pursued war against each other as well as the Hindus and other non-Muslim infidels.[23]

Indonesian Muslim men wearing songkok and sarong standing in salah

Perlon Unggahan — a slametan ritual for ancestors of Javanese Muslims in Pekuncen, Banyumas on last Friday before Ramadan.

Subsequently, Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, animist communities and unbelievers bought peace by agreeing to pay jizya tax to a Muslim ruler, while others began adopting Islam to escape the tax.[32] Islam in Indonesia is in many cases less meticulously practised in comparison to Islam in the Middle East. In some regions, people retained and continued their old beliefs. They adopted a syncretic version of Islam, [33] while others left and concentrated as communities in islands that they could defend, for example, Hindus of western Java moved to Bali and neighbouring small islands.[34] While this period of religious conflict and inter-Sultanate warfare was unfolding, and new power centres were attempting to consolidate regions under their control, European powers arrived.[34] The archipelago was soon dominated by the Dutch empire, which helped prevent inter-religious conflict, and slowly began the process of excavating, preserving and understanding the archipelago's ancient Hindu and Buddhist period, particularly in Java and the western islands.[35]

The vast majority of Indonesian Muslims (about 99%) practice Sunni Islam of the Shafi‘i school. Smaller numbers follow other schools (madhhabs),[16][36] and the Salafi movement.[37] The main divisions of Islam in Indonesia are traditionalism and modernism. Both are supported by Indonesia's two largest Islamic civil society groups Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, respectively.[38] the orders of Sufism are considered essential.[39]

Concerning the political expansion of Islam after the resignation of Suharto, political parties were again permitted to declare an ideology other than Pancasila. Several Muslim parties formed with Sharia as their ideology and the Crescent Star Party (PBB) came in sixth place in the 1999 elections. However, in 2009 elections, the PBB ranked only 10th, while parties characterised by moderate and tolerant Islamic interpretations had more significant success, such as the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) coming in 4th with nearly 8% of total votes.[40]

Shia Islam played an important role in the early period of the spread of Islam in North Sumatra and Java.[41] Currently, there are approximately 1-3 million Twelvers in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Sulawesi islands, and also Ismailis in Bali, which approximates more than 1% of the total Muslim population.[42] Shias form a segment of Arab Indonesians and the Hadhrami people.[43] The main organisation is "Ikatan Jamaah Ahlulbait Indonesia" (IJABI).[44]

The earliest history of Ahmadi Muslims in the archipelago dates back to the summer of 1925, when roughly two decades before the Indonesian revolution, a missionary of the Community, Rahmat Ali, stepped in Sumatra and established the movement with 13 devotees in Tapaktuan, Aceh.[45] The community has had an influential history in Indonesia's religious development, yet in modern times it has faced increasing intolerance from religious establishments and physical hostilities from radical Muslim groups.[46] In Ahmadiyya organisation Jamaah Muslim Ahmadiyah Indonesia (JMAI), there are an estimated 400.000 followers, which equates to 0.2% of the total Muslim population,[7] spread over 542 branches across the country; in contrast to independent estimates, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia) estimates around 80.000 members.[45] A separatist group, Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, known as Gerakan Ahmadiyah-Lahore Indonesia (GAI) in Indonesia, has existed in Java since 1924 and had only 708 members in the 1980s.[45]

The government officially recognises the two main Christian divisions in Indonesia, Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, as two separate religions.

Church in Bukit Doa Getsemane Sanggam, Ambarita, Samosir, North Sumatra

Protestantism is mostly a result of Dutch Reformed and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.[47] The Dutch Reformed Church was long at the forefront in introducing Christianity to native peoples and was later joined by other Reformed churches that separated from it during the 19th century.[48] The VOC regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and restricted it to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago.[49] Although these two branches are the most common, a multitude of other denominations can be found elsewhere in Indonesia.[50]

Protestants form a significant minority in some parts of the country. Statistically, 7% of the total population declared themselves Protestant in a 2010 census. Seventeen per cent of the population in Sulawesi are Protestants, particularly in Tana Toraja regency in South Sulawesi province and Central Sulawesi. Furthermore, up to 65% of the ethnic Torajans are Protestants. The Batak people from North Sumatra is also one of the major Protestant groups in Indonesia, comprising around 65% out of all ethnic population. Christianity was brought by German Lutheran missionary Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen who is known as the apostle to the Batak people and started the Batak Christian Protestant Church (Huria Kristen Batak Protestan).[51][52][50]

Chinese Indonesians are also a significant part of the Protestant population, scattered throughout Indonesia with the majority concentrated in major urban areas. In 2000, approximately 35% of ethnic Chinese were Christian, and there is a continuous increase among the younger generation. In some parts of the country, entire villages belong to a distinct denomination, such as Adventism, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, Lutheran, Presbyterian or the Salvation Army (Bala Keselamatan) depending on the success of missionary activity.[50]

Indonesia has three Protestant-majority provinces, West Papua, Papua, and North Sulawesi, with 60%, 68% and 64% of the total population respectively. In Papua, it is most widely practised among the native Papuan population. In North Sulawesi, the Minahasan population centred around Manado converted to Christianity in the 19th century. Today, most of the population native to North Sulawesi practice some form of Protestantism, while transmigrants from Java and Madura practice Islam. Adherents of Protestantism mostly live in North Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, North Maluku, Maluku (province), West Papua (province), Papua (province).[53] [50]

The Council of Churches in Indonesia (CCI) is the sole umbrella for most Protestant churches.[54]

Jakarta Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Jakarta.

Catholicism arrived in the archipelago during the Portuguese arrival with spice-trading over the 14th and 15th century. Many Portuguese had the goal of spreading Roman Catholicism, starting with the Maluku Islands in 1534. Between 1546 and 1547, the pioneer Christian missionary, Saint Francis Xavier, visited the islands and baptised several thousand locals. During the VOC era, the number of Roman Catholicism practitioners fell significantly, due to VOC policy of banning the religion. The hostility of the Dutch toward Catholicism is due to its history where the Protestant Dutch gained their independence after the Eighty Years War against Catholic Spain's rule. The most significant result was on the island of Flores and East Timor where VOC concentrated. Moreover, Roman Catholic priests were sent to prisons or punished and replaced by Protestant clergy from the Netherlands. One Roman Catholic priest was executed for celebrating Mass in prison during Jan Pieterszoon Coen's tenure as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. After the VOC collapsed and with the legalisation of Catholicism in the Netherlands starting around 1800, Dutch Catholic clergy predominated until after Indonesia's independence.[48][55] In present-day Flores, the royal house of Larantuka formed the only native Catholic kingdom in Southeast Asia around the 16th century, with the first king named Lorenzo.[56]

Other than Flores, Central Java also have significant numbers of Catholics. Catholicism started to spread in Central Java when Frans van Lith, a priest from the Netherlands came to Muntilan in 1896. Initially, his effort did not produce a satisfying result until 1904 when four Javanese chiefs from Kalibawang region asked him to give them education in the religion. On 15 December 1904, a group of 178 Javanese were baptised at Semagung, Muntilan, district Magelang, Central Java, near the border of Yogyakarta.[57]

As of 2010, 3% of Indonesians are Catholics, nearly half the number of Protestants at 7%.[2] The practitioners mostly live in West Kalimantan, Papua and East Nusa Tenggara. The province of East Nusa Tenggara, where the island of Flores and West Timor are located, is the only province in Indonesia where Catholics are the majority (about 54.14% of the total population). In Java, next to Javanese, Catholicism also spread to Chinese Indonesians.[48][58] In the present day, Catholic traditions close to Easter days remain, locally known as Semana Santa. It involves a procession carrying statues of Jesus and the Virgin Mary (locally referred to as Tuan Ana and Tuan Ma respectively) to a local beach, then to Cathedral of the Queen of the Rosary, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Larantuka, Flores.[59]

Eastern Christianity operates in Indonesia under the label "Kristen" together with Protestants.

Eastern Orthodoxy is represented by the Indonesian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), which until 2019 was part of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of Sydney, Australia and New Zealand (Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia),[60] and then comes under the unified spiritual leadership of the Diocese of Singapore (Russian Orthodox Church).

In addition, there are communities of Oriental Orthodoxy, namely the Syriac Orthodox Church (Indonesian: Kanisah Ortodoks Suriah) and Coptic Orthodox Church (Indonesian: Gereja Kristen Ortodoks Koptik di Indonesia).[61]

The Mother Temple of Besakih, on the slopes of Mount Agung in eastern Bali, is the most important, the largest and holiest temple of the Balinese Hindus.

Hindu culture and religion arrived in the archipelago around the 2nd century AD, which later formed the basis of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as Kutai, Medang, and Majapahit. Around 130, a Sundanese kingdom named Salakanagara emerged in western Java. It was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago, created by an Indian trader following marriage to a local Sundanese princess.[62] The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, Prambanan, was built during the Majapahit kingdom by the Sanjaya dynasty. The kingdom existed until the 16th century when Islamic empires began to develop, this period known as the Hindu-Indonesian period.[63]

Hinduism in Indonesia takes on a distinct tone from other parts of the world.[64][65] Hinduism, referred to as Agama Hindu Dharma in Indonesia, formally applied the caste system.[66] It also incorporated native Austronesian elements that revered hyangs, deities and spirits of nature and deceased ancestors. The Hindu religious epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are expressed in Indonesian wayang puppetry and dance. All practitioners of Agama Hindu Dharma share many common beliefs, mostly the Five Points of Philosophy, the Panca Srada. These include the belief in one Almighty God (Brahman), belief in the souls and myriad of local and ancestral spirits and karma or the belief in the law of reciprocal actions, rather than belief in cycles of rebirth and reincarnation. In addition, the religion focuses more on art and ritual rather than scriptures, laws and beliefs.[64][67] In many areas on Java, Hinduism and Islam have heavily influenced each other, in part resulting in Abangan and Kejawèn (Kebatinan) traditions.[68]

According to the 2010 census, Hindus numbered 4 million (1.7% of Indonesians).[2] The Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia has disputed this figure, who estimated as many as 18 million Hindus in the country.[69] The majority of Hindus live in Bali. Sumatra, Java, Lombok, Kalimantan and Sulawesi also have significant Hindu populations; most are Balinese who migrated to these areas through government-sponsored transmigration program or urbanised Balinese attracted to cities in Java, especially the Greater Jakarta area. The Tamil Indonesians in Medan represents another important concentration of Hindus.[7]

There are indigenous religions that are incorporated into the Hinduism (not all followers agree): Hindu Kaharingan of Dayak people;[70] Javanese Hinduism of Tenggerese tribe;[71] Hindu Tolotang of Bugis;[72] and Aluk Todolo of Toraja.[73]

There are also some international Hindu reform movements, including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Sathya Sai Organization,[7] Chinmaya Mission, Brahma Kumaris, Ananda Marga, Sahaja Yoga, and Haidakhandi Samaj.[74]

The Buddha statue at Borobudur temple, Magelang, Central Java

Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia, arriving around the sixth century. The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhist culture were established around the same period. The Indonesian archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires such as Sailendra dynasty, Srivijaya and Mataram Empires. The arrival of Buddhism was started with trading activities that began in the early first century on the Silk Road between Indonesia and India. According to some Chinese sources, a Chinese monk on his journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based in Sumatra. The empire also served as a Buddhist learning centre in the region. Some historical heritage monuments can be found in Indonesia, including the Borobudur Temple in Yogyakarta and statues or prasasti (inscriptions) from the earlier history of Buddhist empires.[63]

Following the downfall of President Sukarno in the mid-1960s and the mandatory policy of having a religion,[75] founder of Perbuddhi (Indonesian Buddhists Organisation), Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sanghyang Adi Buddha. He was also backed up with the history behind the Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and the shape of the Borobudur Temple.[76]

According to the 2010 census, roughly 0,7% of Indonesias are Buddhists, which takes up about 2 million people.[2] Most Buddhists are concentrated in Jakarta, although other provinces such as Riau, North Sumatra and West Kalimantan also have a significant number of practitioners. However, the figures are likely higher, since practitioners of Confucianism and Taoism, the latter of which is not considered an official religion, referred to themselves as Buddhists on the census. Today, most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians and, to a lesser extent, among the Javanese and Balinese. Among the Indonesian Buddhists follow major Buddhist schools: Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Theravada. Most Chinese Indonesians follow a syncretic flows with Chinese beliefs, such as the Three teachings (Tridharma) and Yiguandao (Maytreya).[77]

A Chinese temple of Sanggar Agung, in Surabaya, East Java

Confucianism originated in China and was brought to Indonesia by Chinese merchants as early as the 3rd century AD. Unlike other religions, Confucianism evolved more into loose individual practices and belief in the code of conduct, rather than a well-organised community with a sound theology—akin to a way of life or social movement than a religion. It was not until the early 1900s that Confucianists formed an organisation, called Khong Kauw Hwe (THHK) in Batavia.[78][79][80]

After the Indonesian independence in 1945, Confucianism was affected by several political conflicts. In 1965, Sukarno issued Presidential Decree No. 1/Pn.Ps/1965, recognising that six religions are embraced by the Indonesian people, including Confucianism. In 1961, the Association of Khung Chiao Hui Indonesia (PKCHI) (now the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia) had declared that Confucianism is a religion and Confucius is their prophet.[81][80]

During the New Order, the anti-China policy became a scapegoat-like method to gain political support from the masses, especially after the fall of PKI, which had allegedly been backed by China. In 1967, Suharto issued controversial Presidential Instruction No. 14/1967, which effectively banned Chinese culture, including documents printed in Chinese, expressions of Chinese belief, Chinese celebrations and festivities, and even Chinese names. However, Suharto acknowledged that the Chinese Indonesians had a large amount of wealth and power, despite consisting only 3% of the population.[81][80]

In 1969, Statute No. 5/1969 was passed, restoring the official total of six religions. However, it was not always put into practice. In 1978, the Minister of Home Affairs issued a directive asserting there are only five religions, excluding Confucianism. On 27 January 1979, a presidential cabinet meeting decided that Confucianism is not a religion. Another Minister of Home Affairs directive in 1990 re-iterated the total of five official religions in Indonesia.[81][80] Therefore, the status of Confucianism during the New Order regime was never clear. De jure, there were conflicting laws, because higher laws permitted Confucianism, but lower ones did not recognise it. De facto, Confucianists were not recognised by the government, and they were forced to register with one of the original five official religions to maintain their citizenship. This practice was applied in many places, including the national registration card, marriage registration, and family registration card. Civics education in Indonesia taught school children that there are only five official religions.[81][80]

Following the fall of Suharto in 1998, Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country's fourth president. He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive, and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia. Chinese culture and activities were again permitted. However, after the implementation of Regional Autonomy laws, provinces and regencies were permitted to control their own administrative procedures. This resulted in some administrative districts permitting only five religions on the KTP, a restriction that have been programmed into computer databases.[82]

Nyai Roro Kidul, the goddess of the Southern Sea according to Javanese Kejawen, Sunda Wiwitan and Balinese Hinduism religion.

Kejawèn (Javanese beliefs) or Kebatinan is an amalgam of animism, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic — especially Sufi — beliefs. The beliefs are rooted in Javanese history and spiritualism with the tendency to syncretise aspects of different religions in search for a common ground. Kejawèn is generally characterised as mystical, and some varieties were concerned with spiritual self-control. Although there were many varieties circulating in 1992, Kejawèn often implies pantheistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artefacts, and grave sites of the important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a dukun or healer is sought. Kejawèn, while it connotes a turning away from the aggressive universalism of orthodox Islam, moves toward a more internalised universalism. In this way, Kebatinan moves toward eliminating the distinction between the universal and the local, the communal and the individual.[85]

The Kejawèn have no certain prophet, a sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals; it has more to do with each adherent's internalised transcendental vision and beliefs in their relations with others and with the supreme being. As a result, there is an inclusiveness that the kebatinan believer could identify themselves with one of six officially recognised religions, at least in KTP, while still subscribe to their kebatinan belief and way of life. This loosely organised current of thought and practice was legitimised in the 1945 constitution and, in 1973, when it was recognised as Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa (Believer of One Supreme God) that somewhat gain the status as one of the agama. President Suharto regarded himself as one of its adherents.[86]

The formal Kejawen/Kebatinan movements are Subud, Sumarah, Pangestu, Perjalanan, Amerta, and others.[87]

Subud is an international spiritual movement that began in Indonesia in the 1920s as a movement related to Sufism and Javanese beliefs founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo. (The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia.) The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the latihan kejiwaan, which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force".[88][89]

Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion, but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000.[89]

Indonesian social-religious Saminism Movement (also Sedulur Sikep) rejected the capitalist views of the colonial Dutch, was founded by Surosentiko Samin in north-central Java (Blora) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[90]

Dayak dukun (shaman).

Dukun and pawang are Indonesians' terms for a shaman (the Malays in Indonesia use word bomoh). Their societal role is that of a traditional healer, spirit medium, custom and tradition experts and on occasion sorcerers and masters of black magic. In common usage, the dukun is often confused with another type of shaman, the pawang. It is often mistranslated into English as "witch-doctor" or "medicine man". Many self-styled shamans in Indonesia are scammers and criminals, preying on gullible and superstitious people who were raised to believe in the supernatural.[91]

Surabaya synagogue in 2007.

The early Sephardi Jews establishment in the archipelago came from Portugal and Spain in the 17th century.[92] In the 1850s, about 20 Jewish families of Dutch and German origins lived in Batavia. Some lived in Semarang and Surabaya. Several Baghdadi Jews also settled. Before 1945, there were about 2.000 Dutch Jews in Indonesia. Some Jews even converted to Christianity or Islam during the Japanese occupation when Jews were sent to internment camps, and the Indonesian National Revolution when Eurasians were targeted. In 1957, it was reported that around 450 Jews remained, mainly Ashkenazim in Jakarta and Sephardim in Surabaya. The community decreased to 50 in 1963 and to 20 in 1997.[93]

Jews in Surabaya maintained a synagogue for many years, with sporadic support from relatives and co-religionists residing in Singapore. Beth Shalom closed in 2009 after radical groups protested against Israel's assault on Gaza that year. It was later designated a heritage site by the Surabaya government, but was demolished in May 2013 without warning as part of a mysterious real estate deal.[94]

Since 2003, "Shaar Hashamayim" synagogue has been serving the local Jewish community of some 20 people in Tondano city, North Sulawesi, which is attended by around 10 Orthodox Jews (Hasidic Chabad group). Currently, it is the only synagogue in Indonesia that provides services.[94][92]

The organisation "The United Indonesian Jewish Community" (UIJC) has been formed since 2009 and inaugurated in October 2010.[92] In 2015, the first official Jewish centre, "Beit Torat Chaim", was inaugurated by the Religious Affairs Ministry. It is located in Jakarta and will be led by Rabbi Tovia Singer.[95]

According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in the Bahá'í Faith in Indonesia had 22,115 adherents in 2005.[96]

The community is subject to a measure of government discrimination.[97][98] Since 2014, the situation has improved in the form of government plans for possible recognition (there was an erroneous opinion on already held the official recognition of the Bahai in 2014).[99][100]

Sikhs migration to Indonesia began in the 1870s (guardians and traders). There are several gurdwaras and schools in Sumatra and Java, for example, in Medan was built in 1911. In 2015, the Supreme Council for the Sikh Religion in Indonesia was founded.[101] Numbering about 7.000 (or between 10.000 and 15.000[7]), Sikhs are not officially recognised by the government, resulting in adherents referring to themselves as Hindus on the KTP.[102]

Apart from the orthodox, Sikhism in Indonesia represented the Sikh reformist movement Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB).[103]

A small Jain community, Jain Social Group Indonesia (JSG Indonesia), exists in Jakarta among Indian Indonesians.[104]

The most famous of the new religious movements in Indonesia are Theosophical Society,[105] Transcendental Meditation movement,[106] Falun Gong,[7] and originated in Indonesia Subud[107] and Eden community (Jamaah Alamulla).[7][108]

Although there is no specific law that bans atheism, legal cases in which atheists have been charged with blasphemy for publicly expressing atheist points of view have raised the issue of whether it is de facto illegal to do so according to Pancasila. Some clerics invoke the first Pancasila principle to argue that it is illegal, while legal scholars say that the principle was adopted as a compromise between secular nationalist, Muslim and non-Muslim founders, and not intended to ban atheism. Nonetheless, atheists as a group tend not to express their atheism publicly for fear of prosecution.[109][110]

In 2012, civil servant Alexander Aan was sentenced to 30 months in prison for writing "God doesn't exist" on his Facebook page and sharing explicit material about the prophet Muhammad online,[111][112] sparking nationwide debate.[113] Alexander's lawyers speculated that there were only around 2,000 atheists in Indonesia, but stated that it was difficult to estimate due to the threat of imprisonment for open atheism.[113]