Javanese people

Javanese adapted many aspects of Indian culture, such as the Ramayana epic.

Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent.[28] Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century. The Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy.[25]

The cradle of Javanese culture is commonly described as being in Kedu and Kewu Plain in the fertile slopes of Mount Merapi as the heart of the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom.[29] The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their power base there.[30]^:238–239

The centre of Javanese culture and politics was moved towards the eastern part of the island when Mpu Sindok (r. 929-947) moved the capital of the kingdoms eastward to the valleys of the Brantas River in the 10th century CE. The move was most likely caused by the volcanic eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya.[30]^:238–239

The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century. The expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284,[31] Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275.[30] Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca.

Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediri's rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwang's reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya with the help of invading Mongol troops in March 1293.

Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were later continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk and his minister Gajah Mada.[31]

Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the spice trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major spice producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice, of which Java was a major producer.[32] Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms. It was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade.[33] The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan.

Sultan Amangkurat II of Mataram (upper right) watching warlord Untung Surapati fighting Captain Tack of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). ca 1684 AD.

Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Java's northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta (Surabaya), Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo.[34]

Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed. After this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free.[35] The Sultanate of Demak became the new strongest power, gaining supremacy among city-states on the northern coast of Java.[36] Aside from its power over Javanese city-states, it also gained overlordship of the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra.[36] Demak played a major role in opposing the newly arrived colonial power, the Portuguese. Demak twice attacked the Portuguese following their capture of Malacca. They also attacked the allied forces of the Portuguese and the Sunda Kingdom, establishing in the process the Sultanate of Banten.

Demak was succeeded by the Kingdom of Pajang and finally the Sultanate of Mataram. The centre of power moved from coastal Demak, to Pajang in Blora, and later further inland to Mataram lands in Kotagede, near present-day Yogyakarta. The Mataram Sultanate reached its peak of power and influence during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo between 1613 and 1645.

A Javanese courtly ceremony at Keraton Surakarta in 1932.

In 1619 the Dutch established their trading headquarter in Batavia. Java slowly fell to the Dutch East India Company, which would also eventually control most of Maritime Southeast Asia. The internal intrigue and war of succession, in addition to Dutch interference, caused the Mataram Sultanate to break up into Surakarta and Yogyakarta. The further separation of the Javanese realm was marked by the establishment of the Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman princedom. Although the real political power in those days actually lay with the colonial Dutch, the Javanese kings, in their keratons, still held prestige as the supposed power centre of the Javanese realm, especially in and around Surakarta and Yogyakarta.

Dutch rule was briefly interrupted by British rule in the early 19th century. While short, the British administration led by Stamford Raffles was significant, and included the re-discovery of Borobudur. Conflict with foreign rule was exemplified by the Java War between 1825 and 1830, and the leadership of Prince Diponegoro.

Like the rest of the Dutch East Indies, Java was captured by the Empire of Japan during World War II. With Japan's defeat, independence was proclaimed in the new Republic of Indonesia.

When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sovereign Javanese monarchies, represented by the Sri Sultan of Yogyakarta, the Sunanate of Surakarta and Prince of Mangkunegara declared that they would become part of the Republic of Indonesia.

Yogyakarta and Pakualam were later united to form the Yogyakarta Special Region. The Sri sultan became Governor of Yogyakarta, and the Prince of Pakualaman became vice-governor; both were responsible to the President of Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the war of independence ended and formalised on 3 August 1950. Surakarta was later absorbed as part of the Central Java province.

Javanese alphabet.

Javanese is a member of the Austronesian family of languages and is closely related to, but distinct from, other languages of Indonesia.[41] It is notable for its great number of nearly ubiquitous Sanskrit loans, found especially in literary Javanese.[42] This is due to the long history of Hindu and Buddhist influences in Java.

Many Javanese in Indonesia are bilingual, being fluent in Indonesian (the standardized variant of the Malay language) and Javanese.[43] In a public poll held circa-1990, approximately 12% of Javanese used Indonesian, around 18% used both Javanese and Indonesian, and the rest used Javanese exclusively.

The Javanese language was formerly written with a script descended from the Brahmi script, natively known as Hanacaraka or Carakan. Upon Indonesian independence it was replaced with a form of the Latin alphabet. While Javanese was not made an official language of Indonesia, it has the status of regional language for communication in the Javanese-majority regions. The language also can be viewed as an ethnic language because it is one of the defining characteristics of the Javanese ethnic identity.[41]

Javanese intellectuals, writers, poets and men of letters are known for their ability to formulate ideas and creating idioms for high cultural purpose, through stringing words to express a deeper philosophical meanings. Several philosophical idioms sprung from Javanese classical literature, Javanese historical texts and oral traditions, and have spread into several media and promoted as popular mottos. For example, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", used as the national motto of the Republic of Indonesia, "Gemah Ripah Loh Jinawi, Toto Tentrem Kerto Raharjo", "Jer Basuki Mawa Bea", "Rawe-Rawe rantas, Malang-Malang putung" and "Tut Wuri Handayani".[44]

Javanese priyayi (aristocrat) and servants, c. 1865.

American anthropologist Clifford Geertz divided in the 1960s the Javanese community into three aliran or "streams": santri, abangan and priyayi. According to him, the Santri followed an orthodox interpretation Islam, the abangan followed a syncretic form of Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements (often termed Kejawen), and the priyayi were the nobility.[45]

The Geertz opinion is often opposed today because he mixed the social groups with belief groups. It was also difficult to apply this social categorisation in classing outsiders, for example other non-indigenous Indonesians such as persons of Arab, Chinese and Indian descent.

Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area.

Today, most Javanese officially follow Islam as their religion,[47] Orthodox Muslims are most common in the northern coast bordering the Java Sea, where Islam was first brought to the island. Islam first came in contact with Java during the Majapahit period, when they traded or made tributary relations with various states like Perlak and Samudra Pasai in modern-day Aceh.[33]

A minority of Javanese also follow Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), which are concentrated in Central Java (particularly Surakarta, Magelang and Yogyakarta for Catholicism). Native Christian churches such as the Gereja Kristen Jawa also exist. On a smaller scale, Buddhism and Hinduism are also found in the Javanese community. The Javanese of the Tengger tribe continue to practice Javanese-Hindu today, and live in villages on the slope of Mount Bromo.[48]

Kebatinan, also called Kejawen,[49] Agama Jawa[50] and Kepercayaan[51] is a Javanese religious tradition, consisting of an amalgam of animistic, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic, especially Sufi, beliefs and practices. It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity, syncretising aspects of different religions.

The Javanese calendar is used by the Javanese people concurrently with two other calendars, the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar. The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of Indonesia, while the Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Indonesian government for religious worship and deciding relevant Islamic holidays. The Javanese calendar is presently used mostly for cultural events (such as Siji Surå). The Javanese calendar system is currently a lunar calendar adopted by Sultan Agung in 1633, based on the Islamic calendar. Previously, Javanese people used a solar system based on the Hindu calendar.

Unlike many other calendars, the Javanese calendar uses a 5-day week known as the Pasaran cycle. This is still in use today and is superimposed with 7-day week of the Gregorian calendar and Islamic calendar to become what is known as the 35-day Wetonan cycle.

Traditional Javanese house.

Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings, ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhist stupa, mortuary temples, palace complexes, and mosques.

Two important religious monuments are the Hindu temple of Prambanan and the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. Both of them are 9th century temples and UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Both are located near Yogyakarta in the slope of Mount Merapi.

Meanwhile, examples of secular buildings can be seen in the ruins of the former capital city of the Majapahit Kingdom (14th to 16th century AD) in Trowulan, East Java. The complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km. It consists of various brick buildings, a canal ranging from 20 to 40 meters wide, purification pools, temples and iconic split gates.[52] The capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoid shaped roofs supported by wooden pillars.[53] Another common feature in Javanese buildings are pendopo, pavilions with open-sides and four large pillars. The pillars and other parts of the buildings can be richly carved. This architecture style can be found at kraton, or palaces, of the Sultanates of Yogyakarta (palaces of Hamengkubuwono and Pakualaman) and Surakarta (palaces of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegaran).[54]

Traditional mosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style. The pendopo model is used as the main feature of mosques as prayer halls. A trapezoidal roof is used instead of the more typically Muslim dome. These roofs are often multi-tiered and tiled.[55] In addition to not using domes, traditional Javanese mosques also often lack minarets.[56] The split gate from earlier Hindu-Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java.

Some notable examples of mosques using traditional Javanese architecture include the Agung Demak Mosque, the Menara Kudus Mosque and the Grand Mosque of Banten. The Kudus Mosque is also of note because it incorporates Hindu-style stone architecture.

Example of Javanese cuisine. Clockwise: fried tempeh, mlinjo crackers, gudeg with rice wrapped in teak leaf, green chili sambal and sliced lime.

Nasi tumpeng, the quintessentially Javanese rice dish, symbolises the volcano.

Javanese cuisine and culture place an important role in rice, which is a staple food on the island. Among the Javanese it is considered not to be a meal if a person hasn't eaten rice yet.[57] It is also important part of identity that differentiate Javanese with foreigners that eat bread (the Europeans) and resident of other island who eat sago (for example Moluccans). Rice is also symbol of development and prosperity, while cassava and tuber is associated with poverty.[58]

Javanese cuisine varies by region. Eastern Javanese cuisine has a preference for more salty and hot foods,[58] while the Central Javanese prefer sweeter foods.

A famous food in Javanese cuisine is Rujak Cingur,[59] marinated cow lips and noses served with vegetable, shrimp prawn and peanut sauce with chili. Rojak Cingur is considered a traditional food in Surabaya in East Java.

Gudeg is a traditional food from Yogyakarta[60] and Central Java which is made from young Nangka (jack fruit) boiled for several hours with palm sugar, and coconut milk.

Pecel, a type of peanut sauce with chili[61] is a common ingredient in Javanese cuisine. It is used in various types of Rujak and Gado-gado. It can also be used as stand-alone sauce with rice, prawns, eggs and vegetables as Nasi Pecel (Pecel rice).[62]

Tumpeng, is a rice served in the shape of a conical volcano,[63] usually with rice coloured yellow using turmeric. It is an important part of many ceremonies in Java. Tumpeng is served at landmark events such as birthdays, moving house, or other ceremonies.[64] Traditionally, Tumpeng is served alongside fried chicken, boiled egg, vegetables, and goat meat on a round plate made from bamboo called besek.

A notable food in Java is tempeh, a meat substitute made from soybean fermented with mould. It is a staple source of protein in Java and popular around the world as a meat substitute for vegetarians.

Javanese do not usually have family names or surnames, with only a single name. Javanese names may come from traditional Javanese languages, many of which are derived from Sanskrit. Names with the prefix Su-, which means good, are very popular. After the advent of Islam, many Javanese began to use Arabic names, especially coast populations, where Islamic influences are stronger. Commoners usually only have one-word names, while nobilities use two-or-more-word names, but rarely a surname. Some people use a patronymic. Due to the influence of other cultures, many people started using names from other languages, mainly European languages. Christian Javanese usually use Latin baptism names followed by a traditional Javanese name.

Traditionally, most Javanese people are farmers. Farming is especially common because of the fertile volcanic soil in Java. The most important agricultural commodity is rice. In 1997, it was estimated that Java produced 55% of Indonesia's total output of the crop.[65] Most farmers work in small-scale rice fields, with around 42% of farmers working and cultivating less than 0.5 hectares of land.[65] In region where soil is less fertile of where rainy season is short, other staple crops is cultivated, such as cassava.[66]

A Javanese sailor.

In ancient times, the Javanese people excelled at navigating the seas and trading. This is because not all commodities can be found at the island of Java, and trading is required to fulfill the life necessities. Javanese merchants and sailors were already in frequent voyage in the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE.[67] The Borobudur ship of the Javanese Sailendra dynasty brought Nusantaran sailors and settlers to Ghana and Madagascar in the 8th century CE,[68] but there is a possibility that they were there as early as 500 BCE.[69][70]

The Javanese may have contacted Australia in 10th century AD, and migrated there, their settlement existing until early 1600s. According to Waharu IV inscription (931 AD) and Garaman inscription (1053 AD),[71][72] the Medang kingdom and Airlangga's era Kahuripan kingdom (1000–1049 AD) of Java experienced a long prosperity so that it needed a lot of manpower, especially to bring crops, packings, and send them to ports. Black labor was imported from Jenggi (Zanzibar), Pujut (Australia), and Bondan (Papua).[73][74] According to Naerssen, they arrived in Java by trading (bought by merchants) or being taken prisoner during a war and then made slaves.[75] According to Chiaymasiouro, the king of Demak, in 1601 AD a subgroup of Javanese people already settled in a land called Luca Antara, which is believed to be Australia.[76] But when Eredia's servant went to Luca Antara in 1610, the land had seemingly been abandoned.[77]

The 10th century Arab account Ajayeb al-Hind (Marvels of India) gives an account of invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or Waqwaq,[78]^:110 probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Medang kingdom,[79]^:39 in 945–946 CE. They arrived in the coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, and ambergris, and also because they wanted black slaves from Bantu people (called Zeng or Zenj by Arabs, Jenggi by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves.[80]

During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java. This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places.[79]^:267–293 Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.[79]^:241 It was also during Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania.[81] When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese pilot, which already included part of the Americas.[82]

The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon.[83]^:10 In the Majapahit era, compasses and magnets were used, and cartography (mapping science) was developed: The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.[81][84]

European colonial presence diminished the range of the Javanese merchant-sailors. However, in 1645, Diogo de Couto confirmed that the Javanese were still in communication with the east coast of Madagascar.[85] The decision of Amangkurat I of the Mataram Sultanate to destroy ships on coastal cities and close ports to prevent them from rebelling in mid-17th century further reduced the Javanese people's ability in long distance sailing. In the second half of 18th century, most of the Javanese merchant-sailors were restricted to only short range travel.[83]

Ships of the Javanese people:

• Borobudur ship from Borobudur temple, 8th century AD
• Javanese jong in Banten bay, 1610

The Javanese were known to produce large ships called jong. These ships already plied the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE, carrying up to 1000 people alongside 250-1000 tons of cargo.[67] The jong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially around Rembang-Demak (along the Muria strait) and Cirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and the adjacent islands. Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there.[86]

Impressed by their ability, Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders to work in Malacca for the Portuguese. The shipbuilding in Java was hampered when the VOC gained foothold in Java starting in early 17th century. They prohibited the locals from building vessels more than 50 tons in tonnage and assigned European supervisors to shipyards.[87] However, in the 18th century the Javanese shipbuilding areas (particularly Rembang and Juwana) has started building large European-styled vessels (bark and brigantine type) ranging between 160–600 tons in tonnage.[83]

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  A decorative kris with a figure of Semar as the handle. The bilah has thirteen luk
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  Varieties of Javanese keris
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  Weapons of Java: Machetes, maces, bow and arrows, blowpipe, sling
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  Weapon of Java: Keris
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  Short swords, shields, and a matchlock gun (istinggar)
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  Javanese weapons and standards
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  Various keris and pole weapons of Java.

Blacksmiths are traditionally valued. Some blacksmiths fast and meditate to reach perfection. Javanese blacksmiths create a range of tools and farming equipment, and also cultural items such as gamelan instruments and kris.[66] The art of kris-making provided the technical skills applied to gunmaking. Cannon and firearms required special expertise and may have been made by the same individuals. The blacksmith's spiritual power was said to be transferred to the guns.[88]^:384 The Majapahit used fire-arms and cannonade as a feature of warfare. Cetbang, the Javanese bronze breech-loaded swivel-gun, was used ubiquitously by the Majapahit navy, pirates, and rival lords. The demise of the Majapahit empire also caused the flight of disaffected skilled bronze cannon-smiths to Brunei, modern Sumatra and Malaysia, and the Philippines. This led to near universal use of the swivel-gun, especially on trade vessels to protect against pirates, in the Makassar Strait.[89] Pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded as being used by Javanese people in 1413.[90][91]

Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.[81]^:254[92]^:198[93]^:224 In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Patih Yunus, sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, exceeding what they have in India".[94]^:162[95]^:23

Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao (1618) mentioned that city of Palembang, which has been conquered by Javanese, produces the furious fiery oil (ming huo yu), which according to the Hua I Kao is a kind of tree secretion (shu chin), and is also called mud oil (ni yu). Zhang Xie wrote:[96]^:88

It much resemble camphor, and can corrode human flesh. When ignited and thrown on water, its light and flame become all the more intense. The barbarians use it as a fire-weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails, bulwarks, upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it. Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched.

Because there was no mention of projector pump, the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses.[96]^:88

Kris knives are important items, with many heirloom kris holding significant historical value. The design of the kris is to tear apart an opponent's abdomen, making the injury more severe.

Kota Gede is famous for its silverworks and silver handicrafts.[97]

Batiks are traditionally made by women as a pastime, but some town and villages have specialised in making batik, such as Pekalongan, Kauman, Kampung Taman and Laweyan.

The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues, (wayang-)dolls, and masks. Woodcarving also prominent as house ornamentation and details. The elaborately carved Omah Kudus is a fine example of Javanese woodcarving mastery. The Central Java town of Jepara is famous as a center of Javanese woodcarving workshops, where artists and carpenters especially working on Javan teak wood.[98]

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  Javanese woodworkers making traditional masks during the Dutch East Indies era
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  The carpenters' tools of the Javanese people
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  Javanese agricultural tools
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  A drawing of Javanese manufacturing tools, handicrafts, and musical instruments
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  Javanese musical instruments, many of which require the skills of blacksmith and carpenters
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  Javanese masks