Barefoot

Ancient Olympic discus thrower

People in ancient times, such as the Egyptians, Hindus, and Greeks often went barefoot, as the inhabited terrain mostly mandated no practical necessity for footwear. The Egyptians and Hindus made some use of ornamental footwear, such as a soleless sandal known as a Cleopatra, which did not provide any practical protection for the foot. Athletes in the Ancient Olympic Games participated barefoot and generally unclothed.[5] Even the gods and heroes were primarily depicted barefoot.

The Romans, who eventually conquered the Greeks and adopted many aspects of their culture, did not adopt the Greek perception of footwear and clothing. Roman clothing explicitly including footwear was seen as a sign of power and as a necessity of living in a civilized world; accordingly slaves usually were to remain barefoot.[6] There are many references to shoes being worn in the Bible. During weddings of this period, a father would give his son-in-law a pair of shoes to symbolize the transfer of authority.[7]

During the Middle Ages, both men and women wore pattens in Europe, commonly seen as the predecessor of the modern high-heeled shoe,[8] while menial classes usually wore hand-made footwear made from whatever materials were available. Going barefoot was seen as a mark of poverty and the lowest social class, as well as being the mark of a prisoner.[6] In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey and were usually 7–8 inches (17.7–20.3 cm) high. These shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing. During the 16th century royalty, such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England, started wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life. By 1580, even men wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as "well-heeled".[8]

The phrase barefoot and pregnant is now used to illustrate a woman's traditional role as a homemaker and thus her lack of opportunities to socialize or to have a career outside of the home.[9] It was first used in the early 20th century, possibly by Arthur E. Hertzler (also known as the "Kansas Horse-and-Buggy Doctor"),[10] promoting a hypothesis that:[11]

The only way to keep a woman happy is to keep her barefoot and pregnant.

Barefoot girl in Udaipur, India

Ceremonial dancers' bare feet

Bare feet have come to symbolize innocence or childhood in a glorifying perception of freedom from real-life requirements. The connection to childhood and innocence, as well as the simple joys of country life, are embodied in the poem "The Barefoot Boy" by John Greenleaf Whittier, published in 1855.[12] Additionally, the book Dancing Barefoot by Star Trek: The Next Generation actor Wil Wheaton features five short stories that chronicle his journey from childhood and youth through to maturity and self-acceptance.[13]

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Barefoot slave in South America, bracelets around her ankles informing about her owner

Barefooted slaves depicted in David Roberts' Egypt and Nubia, issued between 1845 and 1849

Barefoot slaves in North America, 1780s

Barefoot prison inmate subdued by corrections officers, contemporary women's prison in the United Kingdom

Barefoot prisoner in Wales,
19th century (museum exhibit)

Depiction of barefoot prisoners by Cornelis de Wael,
To Visit the Imprisoned, 1640s

Barefoot prisoner in a women's penitentiary, North America (ca. 1890)

Modern-day prison inmate,
barefoot in high security restraints

Removing the footwear from a captive person and forcibly making him or her go barefoot has been one of the first means to identify prisoners and other unfree individuals such as slaves in most civilizations. Due to the fact that protective, as well as ornamental footwear, has consistently been a standard clothing feature since the era of ancient civilizations, the much more uncommon semblance of bare feet tends to stand out in apparent contrast to the usual public appearance. Hereby a certain degree of attention and curiosity is typically generated in an observer, which is often purposefully used to mark certain individuals as unfree.

The outward form of bare feet, especially of fully denuded toes, is readily distinguishable from that of regular footwear, which is the case from many different angles around the unshod person. Therefore imposing a barefoot rule and enforcing this specific form of appearance has been a principal feature of early and many modern prison uniforms as well as similar manifestations of typifying clothing for otherwise unfree or captive individuals. For example, female prisoners in 1940s Nazi-era Germany had to live under a strictly enforced barefoot rule in a number of different women's institutions. Bare feet were a compulsory element of their prison uniform and covering them in any way was a punishable offense for the imprisoned women.[34][35][36][37] This viable method to mark and identify prisoners is still employed by authorities in many countries of today.

Seizing the footwear and making an individual go barefoot by constraint is also commonly used in situations where captives cannot be outfitted with identifiable prisoner's clothing due to the circumstances. In those cases forcibly keeping the respective individuals in their bare feet is used as an option, if they are required to be flagged and singled out in an easily obtainable and sufficiently unambiguous manner.
The practice of keeping prisoners fully barefoot is also applicable to hinder and frustrate potential attempts of escape from any form of captivity. This is the case as the susceptible feet, especially the vulnerable soles and toes, are constantly exposed to potentially adverse conditions of the respective environment. It often proves drastically more difficult for prisoners to advance on any given escape route without having the sufficient protection of their feet. If detainees or captives attempt to flee in only their bare feet, this often does not allow for enough rapid and constant locomotion to evade potential pursuers. Through the usually self-evident awareness of this factor, escape attempts by involuntarily barefooted prisoners are often prevented altogether.

Going with bare feet naturally renders a person physically vulnerable and also drastically more susceptible to pain and any other form of discomfort caused by his or her immediate environment. For a shoeless individual the individual radius of action and his or her personal freedom is therefore restricted in many everyday situations, that are usually unproblematic for any shod person. As a consequence a forcibly barefooted individual, who is deprived of the possibility to put on shoes at will, is deliberately placed at a physical and through intimidation also psychological disadvantage against a shod person in many regards. The more protection fully clothed men and women receive from their footwear, the more decisive the immediate disadvantage of the barefooted person normally turns out to be. This aspect is often intentionally utilized by police and corrections, where their personnel is typically issued with highly functional protective gear. Removing the footwear off a person and hereby forcing him or her to remain barefoot is therefore routinely used by law enforcement authorities. This is the case as it offers an immediate and easily accessible option to contain and control an individual in any situation of detainment. In most cases the exercise of control can be achieved without the use of physical force as a detainee kept barefoot is hereby already put in a state of intimidation. This way the detainee is more readily compliant towards fully equipped prison or police officers, as he or she is almost constantly aware of this particular vulnerability and hereby typically coerced into submission. The method of keeping a prisoner barefoot usually complements other means to limit his or her radius of action and is often used in conjunction with restraints such as handcuffs and ankle shackles.

Due to the lack of any protection a barefooted individual usually finds him or herself at a stark disadvantage especially in manifestations of physical confrontation opposing a person wearing protective gear, especially closed footwear such as boots or other forms of safety shoes usually worn by law enforcement officers. Unlike a person with bare feet, drastically more severe injuries can be caused by a kicking person wearing shoes. This is the case because maximum possible force can be put into the motions of a shod kick with almost no factual risk of hurting the impacting foot in the act.[38] For this reason shoes are considered dangerous weapons by penal laws in different countries. One example is Germany.[39][40][41] As footwear can be misused to cause injury in this manner, it is also still a measure of precaution in a number of countries, not to issue prisoners with shoes at all but to keep them barefoot either throughout or for certain periods of time. In countries where prisoners are usually allowed to wear shoes, it is, however, commonplace to seize the footwear of detainees in potentially dangerous situations and also during intake procedures. Mentally unstable or incalculable inmates are usually forced to stay barefoot as well. This is accordingly done to safeguard detention staff from receiving injuries from a resisting person often struggling with his or her entire body, especially their legs and feet.

On the other side, bare feet are a common target for the application of force in situations of confrontation as they are overall highly pain-sensitive and usually within easy reach of the opponent. Moreover, the particular vulnerability of unprotected toes makes them an opportune target to exercise physical control over the barefooted person. These advantages are usually desired by correctional or police officers in situations with resisting arrestees or prisoners. Law enforcement techniques such as pain compliance can be used on bare feet in ways of toe-locks or painful bending of the toes. It is further possible to subdue a resister by applying pointed pressure to the unprotected soles of the person's bare feet, which present a high level of sensitivity. The vaults of the feet are particularly sensitive to pain due to the very tight clustering of nerve tissue. Thus the undersides of bare feet provide a multiplicity of spots for controlled application of force by a detention officer. Also by gripping the big toes of both feet and holding them firmly together an insubordinate prisoner can be practically immobilized and rendered harmless. It usually gets painful for the detained person, if he or she continues to struggle while being held in this toe-lock. With these enforcement techniques, a dangerous situation can usually be de-escalated without injury.[42]

Another main objective of keeping a prisoner barefoot can be seen in preventing and counteracting potential attempts of prison escape. Without effective protection against the environment that shoes usually provide, the locomotion of an unshod person is more difficult in the majority of exterior surroundings. This way a fugitive prisoner is easier to retrieve in many cases. Detainees are often discouraged from attempting escape by this measure alone.[43]

A barefoot person experiences certain discomfort in daily life situations. The desire to be protected from the common inconveniences of the ground, mostly due to coarse textures or adverse temperatures, prompted humans to make use of footwear in ancient history. Incidentally, the traditional visual appearance of civilized societies was established, including footwear as an obligatory feature. A forced exclusion from the conveniences and appearance of footwear typically creates the awareness of being vulnerable, therefore it often has an intimidating effect on a person. Forcing prisoners or other captives to go barefoot often induces a persistent consciousness of submission, as they cannot relieve this often adverse situation on their own.[44] The effect of intimidation is often compounded even further if the bare feet also serve as the target for methods of corporal punishment such as bastinado, which is the case in a number of countries where prisoners are regularly forced to stay barefoot.

As the practical effects are achieved effortlessly and without expenses, keeping prisoners, slaves or other captives barefoot has been cross-culturally practiced ever since antiquity.[45]

Inquisition and witch trials

Barefoot prisoner of the inquisition, Edouard Moyse L'inquisition

During the era of the Catholic Inquisition it was a conviction that women allegedly practicing witchcraft had their ability to use their "sinister powers" largely impaired if they were barefoot. Therefore, the arrested women first had their footwear taken away and it was ensured that they remained barefoot at all times. Due to interpretations of the Malleus Maleficarum it was believed that in case an accused witch was not strictly kept with bare feet she could cast a spell on people by only looking at them. As the prosecutors wanted to avoid any risks, it was ensured that the bare feet of the women remained visible throughout. During questioning or in court the accused women often had to stand within the boundaries of a consecrated spot with the soles of their bare feet constantly being in contact with the sanctified section of the ground. This was believed to inhibit any of their purported magic powers entirely. Therefore, the women were prevented from even looking at the prosecutors when their feet were not strictly in place. To further ensure safety they were often lead in walking backwards for their court sessions. They were not allowed to turn around until their bare feet were visibly placed within the bounded spot. As the accused women were not able use magic after all, this assumption became accepted doctrine. Accordingly, contemporary depictions about inquisition proceedings or similar situations portray the women accused of witchcraft barefooted in almost every case.[81]

Demonstration of "bastinado"

The soles of a barefoot person also serve as a specific target for corporal punishment, commonly referred to as "bastinado" (foot whipping). This method is mainly used in the context of penal functions while the receiving person is usually held in a situation of imprisonment or custody.

The practice of foot whipping is still officially employed in several Middle Eastern nations where the term falaka is customary. This kind of beating was also frequently practiced in Western countries until the middle of the 20th century, where it is generally referred to as "Bastonade". Among others, it was common in German territories, where it was employed until the end of the Nazi-era, mainly within the reformatory and prison system. In certain facilities it continued to be used up until the 1950s.[82][83][84][85]

The beatings are usually aimed at the vaults of the foot, not directly hitting the bone structure of the balls and the heels. The vaults are highly pain-sensitive due to the tight clustering of nerve tissue in that area.

As bastinado usually causes a high amount of suffering for the receiving person while physical evidence remains mostly undetectable after a certain time, it is often used for interrogation purposes in certain countries as well.[86]

Many singers and dancers perform on stage barefoot. The classical dance of Cambodia had its roots in the holy dances of the legendary seductresses (apsaras) of ancient Cambodia and attained its high point during the Angkor period in its interpretations of the Indian epics, especially the Ramayana. Cambodian dancers were well-born women of the king's harem and danced barefoot, with the feet turned outwards and the legs slightly bent at the knee to cushion the movements of the upper body. The unimpeded movement of the foot was essential to the art. When the land was invaded by the Thai, the dancers were taken to the Thai court, where their art was adapted and continued to flourish.[87][88]

The barefoot dance movement of the early 20th century challenged the received laws of classical dance and the broader laws of social decorum. For decades, the bare foot had been perceived as obscene, and no matter how determined barefoot dancers were to validate their art with reference to spiritual, artistic, historic, and organic concepts, barefoot dancing was inextricably linked in the public mind with indecency and sexual taboo. In 1908, Maud Allan shocked and fascinated London theatre-goers with her barefoot dance of desire in Salome, and scandalous tributes positioned her as the embodiment of lust. For many, barefoot dancing represented not only the freedom and horror of modern sexuality but the progress and decline of high culture.[89]

Dancer Isadora Duncan performing barefoot during her 1915–18 American tour

Californian Isadora Duncan revolutionized dance in the Western world by jettisoning the tutu and the pointe shoe of classical ballet and scandalized audiences by performing works of her own choreography in flowing draperies and bare feet. She anticipated the modern women's liberation movement by urging women to rid themselves of corsets and matrimony.[90] Duncan divorced the bare foot from perceptions of obscenity and made a conscious effort to link barefoot dancing to ideals such as "nudity, childhood, the idyllic past, flowing lines, health, nobility, ease, freedom, simplicity, order, and harmony". She believed her utopian dance vision and program would ameliorate the perceived ills of modern life and restore the world to the imagined perfection of Ancient Greece.[89]

The 1954 film The Barefoot Contessa tells the fictional story of Maria Vargas (portrayed by Ava Gardner), a Spanish cabaret dancer of simple origins who frequently went barefoot. She was cast in a movie by writer and director Harry Dawes (portrayed by Humphrey Bogart) and became a major star. In 1978, Ina Garten purchased a specialty food store in The Hamptons named Barefoot Contessa, after the movie. She liked the name because it went well with her simple and elegant cooking style. She sold the store in 1999 and wrote her first book, The Barefoot Contessa Cookbook, which became one of the best-selling cookbooks of the year. She would go on to write more cookbooks and, in 2002, started production of a television show on the Food Network, also named the Barefoot Contessa, which continues to run.[91]

Singer Joss Stone performing barefoot on stage

In the latter half of the 20th century, many singers, primarily females, have performed barefoot, a trend that continues in the early 21st century. One of the first singers to become well known for singing barefoot on stage was Sandie Shaw, who became known as the "Barefoot Pop Princess of the 1960s."[92] Jimmy Buffett is known for performing barefoot at concerts, promoting an island/beach bum lifestyle.[93] Cesária Évora of Cape Verde was known as the "Barefoot Diva" for her habit of performing without shoes.[94]

(Left–B) plaster cast of an adult foot that has never worn shoes displaying natural splayed toes (Right–A) cast of boy showing damage and inward-turned toes after wearing shoes for only a few weeks

There are risks and benefits associated with going barefoot. Footwear provides some protection from puncture wounds from glass, nails, rocks, or thorns as well as abrasions, bruises, heat burns, electrical shock, and frostbite—but studies of people who habitually walk barefoot have consistently found that these problems are minimal, with only about 0.89% of barefoot people having any kind of foot complaint linked to walking barefoot (including temporary conditions such as abrasions) or having the tops of the feet uncovered. Feet that have never worn shoes rarely exhibit problems such as bunions, corns, and "fallen arches",[95][96] are not prone to more than ordinary foot eversion on standing and walking due to the associated weakness or stiffness of the joints of the foot and weakness of the muscles controlling them,[97] as well as having a much reduced incidence of problems such as callouses.[98]

Walking barefoot results in a more natural gait. People who are used to walking barefoot tend to land less forcefully, eliminating the hard heel strike and generating much less collision force in the foot and lower leg.[99] A 2006 study found that shoes may increase stress on the knee and ankle, and suggested that adults who walked barefoot may have a lower rate of osteoarthritis,[100] although more study is required to elucidate the factors that distribute loads in shod and barefoot walking. A 2007 study examined 180 modern humans and compared their feet with 2,000-year-old skeletons. They concluded that, before the invention of shoes, humans overall had healthier feet.[99] A 1991 study found that children who wore shoes were three times more likely to have flat feet than those who did not, and suggested that wearing shoes in early childhood can be detrimental to the longitudinal arch of the foot.[95] Children who habitually go barefoot were found to have stronger feet, with better flexibility and mobility, fewer deformities like flat feet or toes that curve inwards, and fewer complaints.[101] Walking barefoot enables a more natural gait, eliminating the hard heel strike and instead, allowing for a rocking motion of the foot from heel to toe.[99] Similarly, barefoot running usually involves an initial forefoot strike, instead of on the rear of the foot, generating smaller collision forces.[1]

Since there is no artificial protection of the bare foot, some of the possible issues include cuts, abrasions, bruises, or puncture wounds from glass, nails, rocks, or thorns, as well as poisonous plants, animals, or parasites that can enter the body through the cuts on an injured bare foot.[102] In people who are not habitually barefoot, athlete's foot is spread by fungal spores coming into contact with skin that has been weakened and made moist. The fungus is known to only affect around 0.75% of habitually barefoot people in one study and can be prevented by reducing shoe use and keeping the feet dry, particularly after walking through a damp environment where people communally walk barefoot as the fungus only develops under the right conditions, such as when people fail to properly dry their feet after swimming or showering and then put on shoes. Wearing shoes such as flip flops or sandals in these areas can reduce the risk.[103] As such, the fungus is very unlikely to develop on a person who goes barefoot all the time.

The hookworm parasite, found only in warm, moist climates where human feces contaminated with hookworm larvae has been left in places where it might come into contact with human skin, can burrow through a bare human foot (or any part of the body that comes into contact with it).[104] However, as the parasite tends to occur mainly in mud and cesspools, its spread cannot be stopped by most standard shoes since the larvae can penetrate fabric and small holes. The parasite may spread through contaminated material coming into contact with any part of the body, such as through flecks of mud splashing on an ankle or leg.[105] The hookworm parasite is relatively mild, has few symptoms, and can pass completely unnoticed when the infestation level is low enough. Since the hookworm infection is very cheap and easy to treat, and since it requires infected feces to come into contact with human skin within a particular time period, eradicating hookworm is mainly a matter of hygiene (including the building of proper toilet and waste-disposal facilities) and mass-treatment. In very cold weather, shoes can provide thermal insulation, protecting against frostbite.

Issues that can develop as a result of someone who has always worn shoes going barefoot include calf pain or Achilles tendinitis or plantar fasciitis due to shortening of the Achilles tendon and the foot being underdeveloped, due to regular use of shoes. A careful transition eases or remove symptoms, which quickly vanish as the foot adapts.[106][107] Blisters on the feet may occur in the first few weeks of going barefoot, until the skin has become more robust.[106] Individuals with diabetes or other conditions that affect sensation in the feet are at greater risk of injury while barefoot. The American Diabetes Association recommends that diabetics wear shoes and socks at all times.[108]

In the United States, there have been myths that regulations require the wearing of footwear. In the United States, during the period of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, business establishments would deny admittance to barefoot hippies arguing that health regulations required that shoes be worn.[109] This led to a belief by many in nonexistent OSHA or local health department regulations preventing people from going to stores, restaurants, and other establishments without shoes. However, those regulations that exist apply only to employees and not customers.[110] Specifically, the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires employers to "ensure that each affected employee uses protective footwear" when there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, objects piercing the sole of an employee's foot, and where an employee's feet may be exposed to electrical hazards.[111] Additionally, employee footwear, where required by OSHA, must comply with one of the standards described in OSHA's regulations.[111] State and local laws may dictate when and where an employee must wear shoes.[111]

Some people speculate that driving barefoot increases the risk of an accident if bare feet slip off the pedals.[112] It is legal throughout the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom to drive barefoot.[112][113][114] However, in some US jurisdictions, police officers may ticket a driver for other things if the fact that they were driving barefoot or in flip-flops/high heeled shoes hindered their driving and/or resulted in an accident.[115]

A barefoot woman in a dance studio

There are several recreational activities one can participate in while barefoot. Those involved in water sports such as swimming and water polo almost always participate barefoot due to the difficulty of swimming with footwear.

Other common activities performed barefoot include yoga, pilates, hiking, running, driving, water skiing, touch rugby, soccer, beach volleyball, surfing, tubing, gymnastics, Slacklining, and martial arts. Wrestling can be done barefoot. Although most modern Greco-Roman and WWE wrestlers wear shoes, sumo wrestling, Yağlı güreş (oil or "Turkish" wrestling), and mud wrestling are commonly done while barefoot. Fijian wrestler Jimmy "Superfly" Snuka of the WWE has wrestled barefoot as well.[116] American football is not traditionally a barefoot sport, though several placekickers have preferred to kick barefoot, including Tony Franklin of the Philadelphia Eagles and Rich Karlis of the Denver Broncos.[117][118] The two schools of thought involved in barefoot placekicking were that the lack of a shoe provided the kicker with a better "feel" for the ball and greater control over its trajectory. The second theory is that shoes and socks absorbed kinetic energy, and kicking flesh-to-leather created more torque.[119]

Water skiing

A barefoot skier

Main article: Barefoot skiing

Barefoot skiing originated in Winter Haven, Florida, in 1947, when slalom skier A.G. Hancock tried to step off his ski.[144] The same year, in Cypress Gardens, Florida, competitive skier Richard Downing Pope, Jr., became well known in the sport of barefoot skiing.[145] The first barefoot skiing competition was held three years later, at the 1950 Cypress Gardens Dixie Championships.[146] In 1978, skiers from ten nations competed in the first World Barefoot Championships in Canberra, Australia. The same year, the American Barefoot Club (ABC) was formed, which governs competitive barefoot skiing events in the United States.[144]

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