Fenugreek
Fenugreek (/ˈfɛnjʊɡriːk/; Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients in dishes from the Indian subcontinent where it is called methi. Also used in traditional medicine, fenugreek can increase the risk for serious medical side effects, though its culinary use (in smaller quantities) is usually believed to be safe.[2][3] Fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.[3][4]
| Fenugreek | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Fabales |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
| Genus: | Trigonella |
| Species: | T. foenum-graecum |
| Binomial name | |
| Trigonella foenum-graecum | |
History
Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the Near East. It is uncertain which wild strain of the genus Trigonella gave rise to domesticated fenugreek. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq (carbon dated to 4000 BC), and Bronze Age levels of Lachish and desiccated seeds from the tomb of Tutankhamen.[5] Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle.[6]
In one first-century A.D. recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek.[7] In the 1st century AD, in Galilee, it was grown as a staple food, as Josephus mentions it in his book, the Wars of the Jews.[8] The plant is mentioned in the 2nd-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law (Mishnah) under its Hebrew name tiltan.[9]
Etymology
The English name derives via Middle French fenugrec from Latin faenugraecum, faenum Graecum meaning "Greek hay".[10]
Production
India is a major producer, with fenugreek production in India derived from numerous states. Rajasthan accounts for over 80% of India's output.[11]
Uses
Fenugreek is used as a herb (dried or fresh leaves), spice (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). Sotolon is the chemical responsible for the distinctive maple syrup smell of fenugreek.[12][3]
Cuboid-shaped, yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal, and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour.[13]
Cooking
Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some curries, such as with potatoes in cuisines of the Indian subcontinent to make "aloo methi" ("potato fenugreek") curry.[14] Sprouted seeds and fenugreek greens are used in salads. When harvested as greens, fenugreek is known as samudra methi in Maharashtra, especially in and around Mumbai, where it is often grown in sandy tracts near the sea, hence the name samudra, "ocean" in Sanskrit. Samudra methi is also grown in dry river beds in the Gangetic plains. When sold as a vegetable, the young plants are harvested with their roots still attached and sold in small bundles in the markets and bazaars.
In Turkish cuisine, fenugreek seeds are used for making a paste known as çemen. Cumin, black pepper, and other spices are added into it, especially to make pastırma.
In Iranian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are called shanbalileh. They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew ghormeh sabzi, the herb frittata kuku sabzi and a soup known as eshkeneh.
In Georgian cuisine, a related species—Trigonella caerulea called "blue fenugreek"—is used.
In Egyptian cuisine, fenugreek is known by the Arabic name hilba or helba حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home, as well as in coffee shops.[15] Peasants in Upper Egypt add fenugreek seeds and maize to their pita bread to produce aish merahrah, a staple of their diet. Basterma, a cured dried beef, has its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.[16]
Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine.[17] The word for fenugreek in Amharic is abesh (or abish), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.[17]
Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchak (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call hilbah, hilbeh, hilba, helba, or halba "חילבה", to be the Talmudic rubia "רוביא". When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water they greatly expand; hot spices, turmeric and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is also called hilbeh;[18] it is reminiscent of curry. It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashana.[19]
Nutritional profile
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 1,352 kJ (323 kcal) |
58 g | |
| Dietary fiber | 25 g |
6.4 g | |
23 g | |
| Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
| Thiamine (B1) | 28% 0.322 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) | 31% 0.366 mg |
| Niacin (B3) | 11% 1.64 mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 46% 0.6 mg |
| Folate (B9) | 14% 57 μg |
| Vitamin C | 4% 3 mg |
| Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
| Calcium | 18% 176 mg |
| Iron | 262% 34 mg |
| Magnesium | 54% 191 mg |
| Manganese | 59% 1.23 mg |
| Phosphorus | 42% 296 mg |
| Potassium | 16% 770 mg |
| Sodium | 4% 67 mg |
| Zinc | 26% 2.5 mg |
| Other constituents | Quantity |
| Water | 8.8 g |
| |
| †Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA FoodData Central | |
In a 100 g amount, fenugreek seeds provide 1,350 kilojoules (323 kcal) of food energy and contain 9% water, 58% carbohydrates, 23% protein and 6% fat, with calcium at 40% of the Daily Value (DV, table). Fenugreek seeds (per 100 g) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals, particularly manganese (59% DV) and iron (262% DV) (table).
Risks and side effects
Although once a folk remedy for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, there is no good evidence that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use.[3] Fenugreek may affect uterine contractions and be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers.[4] Fenugreek is likely not safe for use during pregnancy as it may have abortifacient effects.[2]
Some people are allergic to fenugreek, including those with peanut allergies or chickpea allergies.[2][3] Fenugreek seeds can cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, abdominal distention, flatulence, perspiration, and a maple-like smell to sweat, urine or breast milk.[2][3][4] There is a risk of hypoglycemia particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of anti-diabetic drugs.[2][3] Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.[2][3]
Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were implicated as the source of the 2011 outbreak of Escherichia coli O104:H4 in Germany and France.[20] Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.[21]
Dietary supplement
Fenugreek dietary supplements are manufactured from powdered seeds into capsules, loose powders, teas, and liquid extracts in many countries.[3][4] Powders may also be used as a topical medication or dressing for skin wounds or eczema.[3] There is little high-quality evidence that these products have any clinical effectiveness.[3][4]
Animal feed
Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish, domestic rabbits and ruminants. [22]
Food additive
Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain the molecule sotolone, which imparts the aroma of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and maple syrup or caramel in lower concentrations.[12][3] Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a dietary supplement.[4]
A mysterious odor of maple syrup – the maple syrup event occurring in New York City in 2005 – was eventually traced to a nearby New Jersey factory of a food additives company processing fenugreek seeds.[23]
Research
Constituents of fenugreek seeds include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins, and saponins; the most prevalent alkaloid is trigonelline and coumarins include cinnamic acid and scopoletin.[2] Research into whether fenugreek reduces biomarkers in people with diabetes and with pre-diabetic conditions is of limited quality.[24] As of 2016, there was no high-quality evidence for whether fenugreek is safe and effective to relieve dysmenorrhea.[25]
Because research on potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no high-quality evidence for health or anti-disease effect, fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.[3][4]
See also
References
- "Trigonella foenum-graecum". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- Ouzir, M; El Bairi, K; Amzazi, S (2016). "Toxicological properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum)". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 96: 145–54. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2016.08.003. PMID 27498339.
- "Fenugreek". Drugs.com. 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- "Fenugreek". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Library of Medicine. 14 April 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 122.
- Cato the Elder. De Agri Cultura. p. 27.
- Curry A (February 2010). "A 9,000-Year Love Affair". National Geographic. 231 (2): 46.
- Josephus, De Bello Judaico, book 3, chapter 7, vs. 29. The prepared relish made from ground fenugreek seeds is very slimy and slippery, and was therefore poured over ladders as a stratagem to prevent the enemy's ascent.
- Commentators Maimonides and Ovadiah di Bertinoro on Mishnah Kil'ayim 2:5; Terumah 10:5; Orlah 3:6; ibid. 10:6; Ma'aserot 1:3, ibid. 4:6; Ma'aser Sheni 2:2–3; Niddah 2:6.
- "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
- V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandinnan and V. Srinivasan (ed.). "Fenugreek". Organic Spices. New India Publishing Agencies. p. 694.
- "3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one; CID=62835". PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 3 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- "BBC - Food - Fenugreek recipes". Retrieved 2017-02-07.
- "14 dishes to eat if you're a vegan in Karachi". Images. 29 March 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
- "Health in a cup".
- "Bastirma Recipe".
- Gall, Alevtina; Zerihun Shenkute (November 3, 2009). "Ethiopian Traditional and Herbal Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs". EthnoMed. University of Washington. Retrieved January 27, 2011.
- "Hilba (Fenugreek paste) Cooking with chillies recipe". Cookipedia.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
- This is based on the assumption that the Aramaic name רוביא corresponds to it. (Karetot 6a; Horiyot 12a) Rabbenu Nissim at the end of Rosh Hashana, citing the custom of R Hai Gaon. This follows Rashi's translation of רוביא, cited as authoritative by Tur and Shulchan Aruch OC 583:1. But Abudirham interprets רוביא as black-eyed peas.
- McKenna, Maryn (2011-07-07). "E. coli: A Risk for 3 More Years From Who Knows Where". Wired.
- King, L. A.; Nogareda, F.; Weill, F.-X.; Mariani-Kurkdjian, P.; Loukiadis, E.; Gault, G.; Jourdan-DaSilva, N.; Bingen, E.; Mace, M.; Thevenot, D.; Ong, N.; Castor, C.; Noel, H.; Van Cauteren, D.; Charron, M.; Vaillant, V.; Aldabe, B.; Goulet, V.; Delmas, G.; Couturier, E.; Le Strat, Y.; Combe, C.; Delmas, Y.; Terrier, F.; Vendrely, B.; Rolland, P.; de Valk, H. (2012). "Outbreak of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 Associated With Organic Fenugreek Sprouts, France, June 2011". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 54 (11): 1588–1594. doi:10.1093/cid/cis255. ISSN 1058-4838. PMID 22460976.
- Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2018. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242
- Jen Chung (5 February 2019). "Happy 10-year anniversary of NYC finding the alleged source of the mysterious maple syrup smell". The Gothamist (New York Public Radio). Archived from the original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
- Gong, J; Fang, K; Dong, H; Wang, D; Hu, M; Lu, F (2 August 2016). "Effect of Fenugreek on Hyperglycaemia and Hyperlipidemia in Diabetes and Prediabetes: a Meta-analysis". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 194: 260–268. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.003. PMID 27496582.
- Pattanittum, Porjai; Kunyanone, Naowarat; Brown, Julie; Sangkomkamhang, Ussanee S; Barnes, Joanne; Seyfoddin, Vahid; Marjoribanks, Jane (2016). "Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3: CD002124. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2. PMC 7387104. PMID 27000311.
