Nordic model

The Nordic model comprises the economic and social policies as well as typical cultural practices common to the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden).[1] This includes a comprehensive welfare state and multi-level collective bargaining[2] based on the economic foundations of social corporatism,[3][4] with a high percentage of the workforce unionized and a large percentage of the population employed by the public sector (roughly 30% of the work force).[5] Although it was developed in the 1930s under the leadership of social democrats,[6] the Nordic model began to gain attention after World War II.[7][8]

This article is about the social and economic model in Northern Europe. For the socioeconomic models in continental Europe, see Dirigisme and Rhenish model. For the political ideology often associated with the Nordic model, see Social democracy. For the type of prostitution law, see Nordic model approach to prostitution.

Part of a series on
Economic systems
By ideology
By coordination
By regional model
Sectors
Property types
Transition
Coordination
Other types
  •  Business and economics portal

The three Scandinavian countries are constitutional monarchies while Finland and Iceland have been republics since the 20th century. Currently, the Nordic countries are described as being highly democratic and all have a unicameral form of governance and use proportional representation in their electoral systems. Although there are significant differences among the Nordic countries,[9] they all have some common traits. These include support for a universalist welfare state aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy and promoting social mobility; a corporatist system involving a tripartite arrangement where representatives of labour and employers negotiate wages and labour market policy mediated by the government;[10] and a commitment to private ownership within a market-based mixed economy,[11] with Norway being a partial exception due to a large number of state-owned enterprises and state ownership in publicly listed firms.[12] As of 2020, all of the Nordic countries rank highly on the inequality-adjusted HDI and the Global Peace Index as well as being ranked in the top 10 on the World Happiness Report.[13]

The distinctive defining characteristic of the Nordic model is a neo-corporatist collective bargaining system. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War,[6] the traditional model has been in decline in some areas, including increased deregulation and the expanding privatization of public services.[14]

History

The Nordic model traces its foundation to the "grand compromise" between workers and employers spearheaded by farmer and worker parties in the 1930s. Following a long period of economic crisis and class struggle, the "grand compromise" served as the foundation for the post-World War II Nordic model of welfare and labor market organization. The key characteristics of the Nordic model were the centralized coordination of wage negotiation between employers and labor organizations, termed a social partnership, as well as providing a peaceful means to address class conflict between capital and labor.[4]

Although often linked to social democratic governance, the Nordic model's parentage actually stems from a mixture of mainly social democratic, centrist, and right-wing political parties, especially in Finland and Iceland, along with the social trust that emerged from the "great compromise" between capital and labor. The influence of each of these factors on each Nordic country varied as social democratic parties played a larger role in the formation of the Nordic model in Sweden and Norway whereas in Iceland and Finland right-wing political parties played a much more significant role in shaping their countries' social models.[15]

Social security and collective wage bargaining policies were rolled back following economic imbalances in the 1980s and the financial crises of the 1990s which led to more restrictive budgetary policies that were most pronounced in Sweden and Iceland. Nonetheless, welfare expenditure remained high in these countries, compared to the European average.[14]

Denmark

Social welfare reforms emerged from the Kanslergade Agreement of 1933 as part of a compromise package to save the Danish economy.[4]

Norway

Norway's "grand compromise" emerged as a response to the crisis of the early 1930s between the trade union confederation and Norwegian Employers' Association, agreeing on national standards in labor-capital relations and creating the foundation for social harmony throughout the compromises' period. For a period between the 1980s and the 1990s, Norway underwent more neoliberal reforms and marketization than Sweden during the same time frame, with the traditional foundations for supporting the "social democratic compromise" being specific to Western capitalism between 1945 and 1973.[16]

As of 2007, the Norwegian state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, among them petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood and fresh water. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product.[17]

Sweden
See also: Welfare in Sweden

In Sweden, the grand compromise was pushed forward by the Saltsjöbaden Agreement signed by employer and labor union associations at the seaside retreat of Saltsjobaden in 1938. This agreement provided the foundation for Scandinavian industrial relations throughout Europe's golden age. The Swedish model of capitalism developed under the auspices of the Swedish Social Democratic Party which assumed power in 1932 and retained uninterrupted power until 1976. Initially differing very little from other industrialized capitalist countries, the state's role in providing comprehensive welfare and infrastructure expanded after the Second World War until reaching a broadly social liberal consensus in the 1950s.[4] According to Phillip O'Hara, "Sweden eventually became part of the Great Capitalist Restoration of the 1980s and 1990s. In all the industrial democracies and beyond, this recent era has seen the retrenchment of the welfare state by reduced social spending in real terms, tax cuts, deregulation and privatization, and a weakening of the influence of organized labor."[18]

In the 1950s, Olof Palme and the prime minister Tage Erlander formulated the basis of Swedish social democracy and what would become known as the "Swedish model", drawing inspiration not from reformist socialism but from the American economist John Kenneth Galbraith and the liberal ideas he articulated in The Affluent Society. The ideological basis of the Swedish "affluent society" rested on a universal welfare state providing citizens with economic security whilst simultaneously promoting social solidarity, representing a break with earlier notions of selective welfare provision in Sweden. The Swedish model was characterized by a strong labor movement as well as inclusive publicly-funded and often publicly-administered welfare institutions.[4]

By the early 1980s, the Swedish model began to suffer from international imbalances, declining competitiveness and capital flight. Two polar opposite solutions emerged to restructure the Swedish economy, the first being a transition to socialism by socializing the ownership of industry and the second providing favorable conditions for the formation of private capital by embracing neoliberalism. The Swedish model was first challenged in 1976 by the Meidner Plan promoted by the Swedish Trade Union Confederation and trade unions which aimed at the gradual socialization of Swedish companies through wage earner funds. The Meidner Plan aimed to collectivize capital formation in two generations by having the wage earner funds own predominant stakes in Swedish corporations on behalf of workers. This proposal was supported by Palme and the Social Democratic party leadership, but it did not garner enough support upon Palme's assassination and was defeated by the conservatives in the 1991 Swedish general election.[19]

Upon returning to power in 1982, the Social Democratic party inherited a slowing economy resulting from the end of the post-war boom. The Social Democrats adopted monetarist and neoliberal policies, deregulating the banking industry and liberalizing currency in the 1980s. The economic crisis of the 1990s saw greater austerity measures, deregulation and the privatization of public services.[4]

Aspects and overview
Flags of the Nordic countries from left to right: Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark

The Nordic model has been characterised as follows:[20]

  • An elaborate social safety net, in addition to public services such as free education and universal healthcare[20] in a largely tax-funded system.[21]
  • Strong property rights, contract enforcement and overall ease of doing business.[22]
  • Public pension plans.[20]
  • Free trade combined with collective risk sharing (social programmes and labour market institutions) which has provided a form of protection against the risks associated with economic openness.[20]
  • Little product market regulation. Nordic countries rank very high in product market freedom according to OECD rankings.[20]
  • Low levels of corruption.[20] In Transparency International's 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden were ranked among the top 10 least corrupt of the 179 countries evaluated.[23]
  • High percentage of workers belonging to a labour union.[24] In 2016, labour union density was 89% in Iceland, 66% in Denmark, 67% in Sweden, 65% in Finland and 49% in Norway. In comparison, labour union density was 17% in Germany, 10% in the United States and 9% in France.[25] In 2013, labour union density was 88% in Iceland, 69% in Denmark, 67% in Sweden, 66% in Finland and 51% in Norway. In comparison, labour union density was 18% in Germany, 11% in the United States and 8% in France.[25] The lower union density in Norway is mainly explained by the absence of a Ghent system since 1938. In contrast, Denmark, Finland and Sweden all have union-run unemployment funds.[26]
  • A partnership between employers, trade unions and the government, whereby these social partners negotiate the terms to regulating the workplace among themselves, rather than the terms being imposed by law.[27][28] Sweden has decentralised wage co-ordination while Finland is ranked the least flexible.[20] The changing economic conditions have given rise to fear among workers as well as resistance by trade unions in regards to reforms.[20] At the same time, reforms and favourable economic development seem to have reduced unemployment, which has traditionally been higher. Denmark's Social Democrats managed to push through flexicurity reforms in 1994 and 1996.
  • The United Nations World Happiness Reports show that the happiest nations are concentrated in Northern Europe. The Nordics ranked highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity and freedom from corruption.[29] The Nordic countries place in the top 10 of the World Happiness Report 2018, with Finland and Norway taking the top spots.[30]
  • The Nordic countries received the highest ranking for protecting workers rights on the International Trade Union Confederation's 2014 Global Rights Index, with Denmark being the only nation to receive a perfect score.[31]
  • Sweden at 56.6% of GDP, Denmark at 51.7% and Finland at 48.6% reflect very high public spending.[32] One key reason for public spending is the large number of public employees. These employees work in various fields including education, healthcare and for the government itself. They often have greater job security and make up around a third of the workforce (more than 38% in Denmark). Public spending in social transfers such as unemployment benefits and early-retirement programmes is high. In 2001, the wage-based unemployment benefits were around 90% of wage in Denmark and 80% in Sweden, compared to 75% in the Netherlands and 60% in Germany. The unemployed were also able to receive benefits several years before reductions, compared to quick benefit reduction in other countries.
  • Public expenditure for health and education is significantly higher in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in comparison to the OECD average.[33]
  • Overall tax burdens (as a percentage of GDP) are high, with Denmark at 45.9% and both Finland and Sweden at 44.1%.[34] The Nordic countries have relatively flat tax rates, meaning that even those with medium and low incomes are taxed at relatively high levels.[35][36]

Economic system

The Nordic model is underpinned by a mixed-market capitalist economic system that features high degrees of private ownership,[37] with the exception of Norway which includes a large number of state-owned enterprises and state ownership in publicly listed firms.[12]

The Nordic model is described as a system of competitive capitalism combined with a large percentage of the population employed by the public sector (roughly 30% of the work force).[5] In 2013, The Economist described its countries as "stout free-traders who resist the temptation to intervene even to protect iconic companies" while also looking for ways to temper capitalism's harsher effects and declared that the Nordic countries "are probably the best-governed in the world".[5][38] Some economists have referred to the Nordic economic model as a form of "cuddly capitalism", with low levels of inequality, generous welfare states and reduced concentration of top incomes, contrasting it with the more "cut-throat capitalism" of the United States which has high levels of inequality and a larger concentration of top incomes.[20][39][40]

Beginning in the 1990s, the Swedish economy pursued neoliberal reforms[41][42] that reduced the role of the public sector, leading to the fastest growth in inequality of any OECD economy.[43] However, Sweden's income inequality still remains lower than most other countries.[44]

Norway's particularities

The state of Norway has ownership stakes in many of the country's largest publicly listed companies, owning 37% of the Oslo stock market[45] and operating the country's largest non-listed companies including Equinor and Statkraft. The Economist reports that "after the second world war the government nationalised all German business interests in Norway and ended up owning 44% of Norsk Hydro's shares. The formula of controlling business through shares rather than regulation seemed to work well, so the government used it wherever possible. 'We invented the Chinese way of doing things before the Chinese', says Torger Reve of the Norwegian Business School".[45]

The government also operates a sovereign wealth fund, the Government Pension Fund of Norway—whose partial objective is to prepare Norway for a post-oil future, but "unusually among oil-producing nations, it is also a big advocate of human rights—and a powerful one, thanks to its control of the Nobel peace prize".[46]

Norway is the only major economy in the West where younger generations are getting richer, with a 13% increase in disposable income for 2018, bucking the trend seen in other Western nations of Millennials becoming poorer than the generations which came before.[47]

Influence of Lutheranism

Some academics have theorized that Lutheranism, the dominant religious tradition of the Nordic countries, had an effect on the development of social democracy there. Schröder argues that Lutheranism promoted the idea of a nationwide community of believers and therefore led to increased state involvement in economic and social life, allowing for nationwide welfare solidarity and economic co-ordination.[48][49][50] Esa Mangeloja claims that the revival movements helped to pave the way for the modern Finnish welfare state. During that process, the church lost some of its most important social responsibilities (health care, education and social work) as these tasks were assumed by the secular Finnish state.[51] Pauli Kettunen presents the Nordic model as the outcome of a sort of mythical "Lutheran peasant enlightenment", portraying the Nordic model as the end result of a sort of "secularized Lutheranism".[50][52] However, mainstream academic discourse on the subject focuses on "historical specificity", with the centralized structure of the Lutheran church being but one aspect of the cultural values and state structures that led to the development of the welfare state in Scandinavia.[53]

Labour market policy

The Nordic countries share active labour market policies as part of a social corporatist economic model intended to reduce conflict between labour and the interests of capital. This corporatist system is most extensive in Norway and Sweden, where employer federations and labour representatives bargain at the national level mediated by the government. Labour market interventions are aimed at providing job retraining and relocation.[54]

The Nordic labour market is flexible, with laws making it easy for employers to hire and shed workers or introduce labour-saving technology. To mitigate the negative effect on workers, the government labour market policies are designed to provide generous social welfare, job retraining and relocation services to limit any conflicts between capital and labour that might arise from this process.[55]

Nordic welfare model

The Nordic welfare model refers to the welfare policies of the Nordic countries, which also tie into their labour market policies. The Nordic model of welfare is distinguished from other types of welfare states by its emphasis on maximising labour force participation, promoting gender equality, egalitarian and extensive benefit levels, the large magnitude of income redistribution and liberal use of expansionary fiscal policy.[56]

While there are differences among the Nordic countries, they all share a broad commitment to social cohesion, a universal nature of welfare provision in order to safeguard individualism by providing protection for vulnerable individuals and groups in society and maximising public participation in social decision-making. It is characterised by flexibility and openness to innovation in the provision of welfare. The Nordic welfare systems are mainly funded through taxation.[57]

Despite the common values, the Nordic countries take different approaches to the practical administration of the welfare state. Denmark features a high degree of private sector provision of public services and welfare, alongside an assimilation immigration policy. Iceland's welfare model is based on a "welfare-to-work" (see workfare) model while part of Finland's welfare state includes the voluntary sector playing a significant role in providing care for the elderly. Norway relies most extensively on public provision of welfare.[57]

Gender equality

When it comes to gender equality, it can be said that the Nordic countries hold one of the smallest gaps in gender employment inequality of all OECD countries,[58] with less than 8 points in all Nordic countries according to International Labour Organization (ILO) standards.[59] They have been at the front of the implementation of policies that promote gender equality. For example, the Scandinavian governments were some of the first to make it unlawful for companies to dismiss women on grounds of marriage or motherhood. Mothers in Nordic countries are more likely to be working mothers than in any other region and families enjoy pioneering legislation on parental leave policies that compensate parents for moving from work to home to care for their child, including fathers.[60] Although the specifics of gender equality policies in regards to the work place vary from country to country, there is a widespread focus in Nordic countries to highlight "continuous full-time employment" for both men and women as well as single parents as they fully recognize that some of the most salient gender gaps arise from parenthood. Aside from receiving incentives to take shareable parental leave, Nordic families benefit from subsidized early childhood education and care and activities for out-of-school hours for those children that have enrolled in full-time education.[58]

The Nordic countries have been at the forefront of championing gender equality and this has been historically shown by substantial increases in women's employment. Between 1965 and 1990, Sweden's employment rate for women in working-age (15–64) went from 52.8% to 81.0%.[59] In 2016, nearly three out of every four women in working-age in the Nordic countries were taking part in paid work. Nevertheless, women are still the main users of the shareable parental leave (fathers use less than 30% of their paid parental-leave-days), foreign women are being subjected to under-representation[58] and a nation like Finland still holds a notable gender pay-gap (on average, women only receive 83 cents for every euro a male counterpart gets).[61]

Poverty reduction

The Nordic model has been successful at significantly reducing poverty.[62] In 2011, poverty rates before taking into account the effects of taxes and transfers stood at 24.7% in Denmark, 31.9% in Finland, 21.6% in Iceland, 25.6% in Norway and 26.5% in Sweden. After accounting for taxes and transfers, the poverty rates for the same year became 6%, 7.5%, 5.7%, 7.7% and 9.7% respectively, for an average reduction of 18.7 p.p.[63] Compared to the United States, which has a poverty level pre-tax of 28.3% and post-tax of 17.4% for a reduction of 10.9 p.p., the effects of tax and transfers on poverty in all the Nordic countries are substantially bigger.[63] However, in comparison to France (27 p.p. reduction) and Germany (24.2 p.p. reduction), the taxes and transfers in the Nordic countries are smaller on average.[63]

Social democracy
Vote percentage over time of the main social democratic parties[64] in Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway
  Labour Party (Norway)
  Swedish Social Democratic Party
  Social Democrats (Denmark)
  Social Democratic Party of Finland

Social democrats have played a pivotal role in shaping the Nordic model, with policies enacted by social democrats being pivotal in fostering the social cohesion in the Nordic countries.[65] Among political scientists and sociologists, the term social democracy has become widespread to describe the Nordic model due to the influence of social democratic party governance in Sweden and Norway. According to sociologist Lane Kenworthy, the meaning of social democracy in this context refers to a variant of capitalism based on the predominance of private property and market allocation mechanisms alongside a set of policies for promoting economic security and opportunity within the framework of a capitalist economy as opposed to a political ideology that aims to replace capitalism.[66][67]

As of the 1990s, the Nordic identity has been explained with cultural, not political factors, but politics has been re-entering the conversation on the Nordic identity. According to Johan Strang, cultural explanations benefits neoliberalism, during whose rise the cultural phenomenon coincided. Strang states that "[t]he Social Democratic model, which was still very much alive during the Cold War, has now been abandoned, and other explanations for Nordic success have been sought to replace it".[6]

Reception

The Nordic model has been positively received by some American politicians and political commentators. Jerry Mander has likened the Nordic model to a kind of "hybrid" system which features a blend of capitalist economics with socialist values, representing an alternative to American-style capitalism.[68] Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders has pointed to Scandinavia and the Nordic model as something the United States can learn from, in particular with respect to the benefits and social protections the Nordic model affords workers and its provision of universal healthcare.[69][70][71] According to Naomi Klein, former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev sought to move the Soviet Union in a similar direction to the Nordic system, combining free markets with a social safety net, but still retaining public ownership of key sectors of the economy—ingredients that he believed would transform the Soviet Union into "a socialist beacon for all mankind".[72][73]

The Nordic model has also been positively received by various social scientists and economists. American professor of sociology and political science Lane Kenworthy advocates for the United States to make a gradual transition toward a social democracy similar to those of the Nordic countries, defining social democracy as such: "The idea behind social democracy was to make capitalism better. There is disagreement about how exactly to do that, and others might think the proposals in my book aren't true social democracy. But I think of it as a commitment to use government to make life better for people in a capitalist economy. To a large extent, that consists of using public insurance programs—government transfers and services".[74]

Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz has noted that there is higher social mobility in the Scandinavian countries than in the United States and argues that Scandinavia is now the land of opportunity that the United States once was.[75] American author Ann Jones, who lived in Norway for four years, contends that "the Nordic countries give their populations freedom from the market by using capitalism as a tool to benefit everyone" whereas in the United States "neoliberal politics puts the foxes in charge of the henhouse, and capitalists have used the wealth generated by their enterprises (as well as financial and political manipulations) to capture the state and pluck the chickens".[76]

Economist Jeffrey Sachs is a proponent of the Nordic model, having pointed out that the Nordic model is "the proof that modern capitalism can be combined with decency, fairness, trust, honesty, and environmental sustainability".[77]

The Nordic combination of extensive public provision of welfare and a culture of individualism has been described by Lars Trägårdh of Ersta Sköndal University College as "statist individualism".[46]

A 2016 survey by the think tank Israel Democracy Institute found that nearly 60 percent of Israeli Jews preferred a "Scandinavian model" economy, with high taxes and a robust welfare state.[78]

Criticism

Socialist economists Pranab Bardhan and John Roemer criticise Nordic-style social democracy for its questionable effectiveness in promoting relative egalitarianism as well as its sustainability. They point out that Nordic social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain the heavy redistribution required, arguing that it is idealistic to think similar levels of redistribution can be accomplished in countries with weaker labour movements. They note that even in the Scandinavian countries social democracy has been in decline since the weakening of the labour movement in the early 1990s, arguing that the sustainability of social democracy is limited. Roemer and Bardham argue that establishing a market socialist economy by changing enterprise ownership would be more effective than social democratic redistribution at promoting egalitarian outcomes, particularly in countries with weak labour movements.[79]

Historian Guðmundur Jónsson argues that, historically, it would be inaccurate to include Iceland in one aspect of the Nordic model, that of consensus democracy. Addressing the time period from 1950-2000, Jónsson writes that "Icelandic democracy is better described as more adversarial than consensual in style and practice. The labour market was rife with conflict and strikes more frequent than in Europe, resulting in strained government–trade union relationship. Secondly, Iceland did not share the Nordic tradition of power-sharing or corporatism as regards labour market policies or macro-economic policy management, primarily because of the weakness of Social Democrats and the Left in general. Thirdly, the legislative process did not show a strong tendency towards consensus-building between government and opposition with regard to government seeking consultation or support for key legislation. Fourthly, the political style in legislative procedures and public debate in general tended to be adversarial rather than consensual in nature".[80]

In a 2017 study, economists James Heckman and Rasmus Landersøn compared American and Danish social mobility and found that social mobility is not as high as figures might suggest in the Nordic countries, although they did find that Denmark ranks higher in income mobility. When looking exclusively at wages (before taxes and transfers), Danish and American social mobility are very similar. It is only after taxes and transfers are taken into account that Danish social mobility improves, indicating that Danish economic redistribution policies are the key drivers of greater mobility. Additionally, Denmark's greater investment in public education did not improve educational mobility significantly, meaning children of non-college educated parents are still unlikely to receive college education, although this public investment did result in improved cognitive skills amongst poor Danish children compared to their American peers. There was evidence that generous welfare policies could discourage the pursuit of higher-level education due to decreasing the economic benefits that college education level jobs offer and increasing welfare for workers of a lower education level.[81]

In addition, some welfare and gender researchers based in the Nordic countries suggest that these states have often been over- privileged when different European societies are being assessed in terms of how far they have achieved gender equality. They argue that such assessments often utilise international comparisons adopting conventional economic, political, educational, and wellbeing measures (e.g. World Economic Forum 2020[82]). By contrast, they suggest that if one takes a broader perspective on well-being incorporating, for instance, social issues associated with bodily integrity or bodily citizenship (Pringle 2016[83]), then some major forms of men's domination still stubbornly persist in the Nordic countries, e.g. business, violence to women, sexual violence to children, the military, academia and religion (Hearn and Pringle 2006;[84] Pringle 2011;[85] Hearn et al. 2018[86]).

Misconceptions

George Lakey, author of Viking Economics, asserts that Americans generally misunderstand the nature of the Nordic model, stating:

Americans imagine that "welfare state" means the U.S. welfare system on steroids. Actually, the Nordics scrapped their American-style welfare system at least 60 years ago, and substituted universal services, which means everyone—rich and poor—gets free higher education, free medical services, free eldercare, etc.[87]

In his role as economic adviser to Poland and Yugoslavia in their post-communist transitional period, Jeffrey Sachs noted that the specific forms of Western-style capitalism such as Swedish-style social democracy and Thatcherite liberalism are virtually identical, when compared to Eastern Europe in the 1990s, arguing:

The eastern countries must reject any lingering ideas about a "third way", such as a chimerical "market socialism" based on public ownership or worker self-management, and go straight for a western-style market economy. [...] The main debate in economic reform should therefore be about the means of transition, not the ends. Eastern Europe will still argue over the ends: for example, whether to aim for Swedish-style social democracy or Thatcherite liberalism. But that can wait. Sweden and Britain alike have nearly complete private ownership, private financial markets and active labour markets. Eastern Europe today [in 1990] has none of these institutions; for it, the alternative models of Western Europe are almost identical.[88]

In a speech at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government, Lars Løkke Rasmussen, the centre-right Danish prime minister from the conservative-liberal Venstre party, addressed the American misconception that the Nordic model is a form of socialism, stating: "I know that some people in the US associate the Nordic model with some sort of socialism. Therefore, I would like to make one thing clear. Denmark is far from a socialist planned economy. Denmark is a market economy".[89]

See also

Lists

References
  1. Simon, Carsta (20 December 2017). "Why Norwegians Don't Have Their Pigs in the Forest: Enlightening the Nordic Art of 'Co-operation'". Behavior and Social Issues. 26: 172. doi:10.5210/bsi.v26i0.7317. ISSN 1064-9506.
  2. Kjellberg, Anders (2019). "Sweden: Collective Bargaining Under the Industry Norm". In Müller, Torsten; Vandaele, Kurt; Waddington, Jeremy, eds. (2019). Collective Bargaining in Europe: Towards an Endgame. Brussels: European Trade Union Institute. III. pp. 583–604. ISBN 978-2-87452-514-8.
  3. Rosser, J. Barkley; Rosser, Marina V. (2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8.
  4. Simon Reid, Henry (2015). The Political Origins of Inequality: Why a More Equal World Is Better for Us All. University of Chicago Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0226236797. The dynamics were slightly different in each country. The social welfare reforms that emerged out of the Kanslergae Agreement in Denmark in 1933 came at the height of the interwar economic crisis and was part of a wider compromise package to save the Danish economy. It was a coincidence, but a telling one, that on the same day that the agreement was ratified, Hitler was appointed chanceller of the Reich in Berlin, convinced that he had a better way of saving the economy. In Sweden, the politics of grand compromise were pushed forward with the so-called Basic Agreement – essentially a commitment to the spirit of give-and-take in labour disputes – signed by the employer and labour union associations at the unprepossessing seaside retreat of Saltsjobaden in 1938…But in truth the Agreement was the foundation for the relative industrial harmony that would mark Scandinavian industrial relations throughout Europe's Golden Age. In Norway, the empowerment of women as well as workers was key. Women workers marched in 1905 and achieved limited suffrage in 1907, with full suffrage coming in 1913, some five years before it came to Sweden.
  5. "The Nordic countries: The next supermodel". The Economist. 2 February 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  6. Liukas, Christa (1 November 2019). "The Nordic brand replaced the welfare state – did politics disappear from the Nordic model?". University of Helsinki. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
  7. Petersen, Klaus (March 2009). "Constructing Nordic Welfare? Nordic Social Political Cooperation" (PDF). In Christiansen, Niels Finn; Edling, Nils; Haave, Per; Petersen, Klaus (eds.). The Nordic Model of Welfare: A Historical Reappraisal. Copenaghen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 67–96. Retrieved 3 October 2020 – via Helsinki University.
  8. Sachs, Jeffrey (2006). "Revisiting the Nordic Model: Evidence on Recent Macroeconomic Performance". Perspectives on the Performance of the Continental Economies. Center for Capitalism & Society, Venice Summer Institute. pp. 387–412. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.340. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262015318.003.0012. ISBN 9780262015318. First, like the Anglo-Saxon economies, the Nordic economies are overwhelmingly private-sector owned, open to trade, and oriented to international markets. Financial, labor, and product market forces operate powerfully throughout non-state sector. In short, these are capitalist economies. [...] Second, there is no single Nordic model, and still less, an unchanging Nordic model. What has been consistently true for decades is a high level of public social outlays as a share of national income, and a sustained commitment to social insurance and redistributive social support for the poor, disabled, and otherwise vulnerable parts of the population.
  9. Lane, Kenworthy (2013). Social Democratic America. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9780199322527.
  10. Hicks, Alexander (20 January 2000). Social Democracy and Welfare Capitalism: A Century of Income Security Politics. Cornell University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0801485565. By the late 1950s, labor had been incorporated alongside Swedish business in fully elaborated corporatist institutions of collective bargaining and policy making, public as well as private, supply-side (as for labour training) as well as demand side (e.g., Keynesian). During the 1950s and 1960s, similar neocorpratist institutions developed in Denmark and Norway, in Austria and the Netherlands, and somewhat later, in Belgium and Finland.
  11. Sandbu, Martin (28 August 2018). "What the Nordic mixed economy can teach today's new left". Financial Times. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  12. "Norway: The rich cousin". The Economist. 2 February 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
  13. Helliwell, John; et al. (20 March 2020). "World Happiness Report 2020". United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
  14. Veggel, Noralv (2014). "The Nordic Model – Its Arrival and Decline". Global Journal of Management and Business Research: Administration and Management. 14 (9): 60–94. ISSN 2249-4588. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  15. Dolvik, Flotten, Hippe, Jordfald, Jon Erik, Tone, Jon M., Bard (2015). The Nordic Model towards 2030: A New Chapter? NordMod2030. p. 23. ISBN 978-82-324-0185-7. The Nordic model therefore cannot exclusively be tied to social democratic party support and political dominance. In Sweden, Denmark and Norway, where the social democrats held power for large periods from the 1930s onwards, that description fits better than it does for Finland and Iceland, where centrist and right-leaning parties have set the terms of debate. But in these countries, too, the building of strong labour unions – in line with Walter Korpi's power resource mobilization thesis (Korpi 1981) – was crucial to the central role of labour and employer organizations in developing universal welfare schemes. A variety of modern social security programmes, whether sickness benefits or pensions, first appeared in negotiated collective agreements. It is moreover likely that inspirational ideas and learning experiences that passed between Nordic countries also transcended party lines within these countries.The political underpinnings of the Nordic model have thus been built on broadbased power mobilization and a higher degree of balance between the core interests in society than is evident in most other countries.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. Fagerberg, Jan; Cappelen, Adne; Mjøset, Lars; Skarstein, Rune (May 1990). "The Decline of Social-Democratic State Capitalism in Norway". New Left Review: 60–94. Retrieved 30 March 2020. Norway has, together with Sweden, often been idealized as the most successful case of postwar social democracy...the neo-liberal 'blue wave' which rolled over Western Europe in the 1980s has had considerably greater impact in Norway than in Sweden, combining with the pressures of a destabilized international economy to threaten many of the postwar structures. This makes it easier to appreciate the earlier accomplishments of social democracy, but it also shows that the Nordic innovations often depended upon the convergence of specific national conditions with the dynamic phase of Western capitalism that lasted from 1945 to 1973.
  17. Acher, John (6 September 2007). "Update 1-Statistics Norway raises '07 GDP outlook, cuts '08". Reuters. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
  18. O'Hara, Phillip (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Economy: L-Z. London: Routledge. p. 1248. ISBN 978-0415154260.
  19. O'Hara, Phillip (March 19, 1999). Encyclopedia of Political Economy: L-Z. Routledge. p. 1248. ISBN 978-0415154260. The critical issues were perhaps revealed most clearly in the Swedish case. Among the most advanced of the social welfare states, Sweden in the early 1980s faced a pivotal choice between capitalism and the transition to socialism. In the discourse focused upon its nagging problems of international imbalances, declining competitiveness, and capital flight, two polar solutions emerged. Olaf Palme supported an aggressive use of workers' funds, by which capital formation would have been largely collectivized in two generations. The funds would have come to own predominant stakes in Swedish corporations on behalf of workers. The other alternative was to retrench the welfare state and provide conditions favorable to private capitals formation. Palme's proposal appears never to have garnered widespread support and was left with no champion in the wake of his assassination.
  20. Andersen, Torben M.; Holmström, Bengt; Honkapohja, Seppo; Korkman, Sixten; Söderström, Hans Tson; Vartiainen, Juhana (2007). The Nordic Model: Embracing globalization and sharing risks (PDF). Yliopistopaino, Helsinki: Taloustieto Oy. ISBN 978-951-628-468-5. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  21. "Healthcare in Sweden". Sweden. 12 June 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  22. "Economy Rankings". Doing Business. The World Bank Group. 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  23. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2015". Transparency International. Full Table and Rankings. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  24. Bruhn, Anders; Kjellberg, Anders; Sandberg, Åke (2013). Sandberg, Åke (ed.). "A New World of Work Challenging Swedish Unions" (PDF). Stockholm: 126–186. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. "Trade Union Density". OECD StatExtracts. OECD. 2013. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  26. Kjellberg, Anders (4 April 2006). "The Swedish unemployment insurance – will the Ghent system survive?" (pdf). Transfer European Review of Labour and Research ; Quarterly Review of the Etui Research Department. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research. 12: 87–98. doi:10.1177/102425890601200109. ISSN 1024-2589. S2CID 153819218. Retrieved 26 July 2016 – via Lund University.
  27. "The Nordic Model". In focus 2001. Nordic Labour Journal. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  28. Anders Kjellberg (2017) ”Self-regulation versus State Regulation in Swedish Industrial Relations” In Mia Rönnmar and Jenny Julén Votinius (eds.) Festskrift till Ann Numhauser-Henning. Lund: Juristförlaget i Lund 2017, pp. 357–383.
  29. Gregoire, Carolyn (1 August 2015). "The Happiest Countries In The World". The Huffington Post (published 10 September 2013). Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  30. Rankin, Jennifer (20 March 2017). "Happiness is on the wane in the US, UN global report finds". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  31. Wearing, David (22 May 2014). "Where's the worst place to be a worker? Most of the world". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  32. "Index of Economic Freedom - Countries". Index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation. 2008. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  33. Growing Unequal? Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries. OECD. 2008. p. 233. doi:10.1787/9789264044197-en. ISBN 978-92-64-04418-0 – via Keepeek 360.
  34. "OECD Revenue Statistics".
  35. "The Nordic model is about more than high taxes – CapX". 15 January 2015.
  36. "How Scandinavian Countries Pay for Their Government Spending – Tax Foundation". 10 June 2015.
  37. McWhinney, James E. (25 June 2013). "The Nordic Model: Pros and Cons". Investopedia. Retrieved 16 September 2015. The Nordic model is a term coined to capture the unique combination of free market capitalism and social benefits that have given rise to a society that enjoys a host of top-quality services, including free education and free healthcare, as well as generous, guaranteed pension payments for retirees. These benefits are funded by taxpayers and administered by the government for the benefit of all citizens.
  38. "The secret of their success". The Economist. 31 January 2013.
  39. Hopkin, Jonathan; Lapuente, Victor; Moller, Lovisa (29 January 2014). "Lower levels of inequality are linked with greater innovation in economies". London School of Economics. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  40. Lane, Kenworthy (3 December 2013). Social Democratic America. New York City: Oxford University Press. pp. 88–93. ISBN 9780199322527.
  41. Westerlund, Per-Åke (22 March 2014). "Is Sweden a Model to Follow?". Socialist Alternative. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  42. Rozworski, Michal (27 February 2015). "Beyond the Swedish Model". Jacobin. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  43. "Swedish riots rage for fourth night". The Guardian. 23 May 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  44. Higgins, Andrew (26 May 2013). "In Sweden, Riots Put an Identity in Question". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  45. "Norway: The rich cousin – Oil makes Norway different from the rest of the region, but only up to a point". The Economist. 2 February 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  46. "The secret of their success". The Economist. 2 February 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  47. Savage, Maddy (10 July 2018). "Unlike most millennials, Norway's are rich". BBC. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  48. Schröder, Martin (2013). Integrating Varieties of Capitalism and Welfare State Research. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 96, 144–145, 149, 155, 157.
  49. Markkola, Pirjo (2011). Kettunen, Pauli; Petersen, Klaus (eds.). "The Lutheran Nordic Welfare States". Beyond Welfare State Models. Transnational Historical Perspectives on Social Policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing: 102–118. ISBN 9781849809603 – via Google Books.
  50. Kettunen, Pauli (2010). "The Sellers of Labour Power as Social Citizens: A Utopian Wage Work Society in the Nordic Visions of Welfare" (PDF). NordWel Studies in Historical Welfare State Research: 16–45.
  51. Sinnemäki, Kaius; Portman, Anneli; Tilli, Jouni; Nelson, Robert H, eds. (2019). On the Legacy of Lutheranism in Finland: Societal Perspectives. doi:10.21435/sfh.25. ISBN 9789518581355.
  52. Nelson, Robert H. (2017). Lutheranism and the Nordic Spirit of Social Democracy: A Different Protestant Ethic. Bristol: ISD. pp. 21, 121. ISBN 978-87-7184-416-0 – via Google Books.
  53. Hilson, Mary (2008). The Nordic Model: Scandinavia since 1945. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 112–133. ISBN 9781861894618 – via Google Books.
  54. Rosser, Mariana V.; Rosser Jr., J. Barkley (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. MIT Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0262182348. Liberal corporatism is largely self-organized between labor and management, with only a supporting role for government. Leading examples of such systems are found in small, ethnically homogeneous countries with strong traditions of social democratic or labor party rule, such as Sweden's Nordic neighbors. Using a scale of 0.0 to 2.0 and subjectively assigning values based on six previous studies, Frederic Pryor in 1988 found Norway and Sweden the most corporatist at 2.0 each, followed by Austria at 1.8, the Netherlands at 1.5, Finland, Denmark, and Belgium at 1.3 each, and Switzerland and West Germany at 1.0 each. [...] [W]ith the exception of Iceland, all the Nordic countries have higher taxes, larger welfare states, and greater corporatist tendencies than most social market economies.
  55. McWhinney, James E. (25 June 2013). "The Nordic Model: Pros and Cons". Investopedia. Retrieved 16 September 2015. The model is underpinned by a capitalist economy that encourages creative destruction. While the laws make it is easy for companies to shed workers and implement transformative business models, employees are supported by generous social welfare programs.
  56. Esping-Andersen, G. (1991). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  57. The Nordic Council. "About the Nordic welfare model". Norden. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
  58. "Is the Last Mile the Longest?" (PDF). Nordic Council of Ministers. May 2018 – via OECD.
  59. "Which countries have the highest gender gap in the workplace?". International Labor Organization. 6 June 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  60. Moustgaard, Ulrikke (19 October 2017). "Nordic family policies – between quotas and freedom of choice". Nordic Information on Gender. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  61. "Thursday's papers: Finland's gender pay gap, our duty to help, and cheaper microbreweries". YLE. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  62. Drum, Kevin (26 September 2013). "We Can Reduce Poverty If We Want To. We Just Have To Want To". Mother Jones. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
  63. "Compare your country – Income distribution and poverty". OECD.
  64. Brandal, Nik; Bratberg, Øivind; Thorsen, Dag (2013). The Nordic model of social democracy. Springer. p. 2. doi:10.1057/9781137013279. ISBN 978-1-349-43669-9.
  65. Brandal, Nik; Bratberg, Øivind; Thorsen, Dag (2013). The Nordic model of social democracy. Springer. p. vi & 159. doi:10.1057/9781137013279. ISBN 978-1-349-43669-9.
  66. Kenworthy, Lane (January 2014). "America's Social Democratic Future". Foreign Affairs (January/February 2014). Retrieved 2 April 2014.
  67. Kenworthy, Lane (March 1, 2016). "Social Democracy". The Next System Project. Retrieved April 27, 2020. The chief goals social democracy attempts to realize, and that distinguish it from other actually-existing capitalisms, are economic security, equality (low inequality) of opportunity, and shared prosperity...Modern social democracy consists, to put it simply, of market capitalism plus generous and employment-friendly social policy...
  68. Mander, Jerry (24 July 2013). "There Are Good Alternatives to US Capitalism, But No Way to Get There". Alternet. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  69. Sanders, Bernie (26 May 2013). "What Can We Learn From Denmark?". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  70. Issenberg, Sasha (9 January 2010). "Sanders a growing force on the far, far left". Boston Globe. You go to Scandinavia, and you will find that people have a much higher standard of living, in terms of education, health care, and decent paying jobs.
  71. Aleem, Zeeshan (4 May 2015). "Bernie Sanders Says the U.S. Could Learn a Lot From Scandinavia. Here's Why He's Right". Mic. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
  72. Klein, Naomi (2008). The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. Picador. p. 276. ISBN 978-0312427993.
  73. Whyman, Philip; Baimbridge, Mark; Mullen, Andrew (2012). The Political Economy of the European Social Model (Routledge Studies in the European Economy. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 978-0415476294. In short, Gorbachev aimed to lead the Soviet Union towards the Scandinavian social democratic model.
  74. Matthews, Dylan (9 January 2014). "This sociologist has a plan to make America more like Sweden". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  75. "'Scandinavian Dream' is true fix for America's income inequality". CNN Money. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  76. "After I Lived in Norway, America Felt Backward. Here's Why". The Nation. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  77. "Prof Jeffrey Sachs' plea to the Nordic countries". Global Health Minders. 18 November 2015. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  78. Sales, Ben (23 May 2016). "Survey: Israeli Jews Want Broader Welfare State, Israeli Arabs Prefer 'American Model'". Haaretz. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  79. Bardhan, Pranab; Roemer, Johen E. (1992). "Market socialism, a case for rejuvenation". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 6 (3): 104. doi:10.1257/jep.6.3.101. [W]e believe that social democracy requires rather special political circumstances that are absent in many countries for which our market socialism proposal may be feasible. Since it (social democracy) permits a powerful capitalist class to exist (90 percent of productive assets are privately owned in Sweden), only a strong and unified labor movement can win the redistribution through taxes that is characteristic of social democracy. It is idealistic to believe that tax concessions of this magnitude can be effected simply through electoral democracy without an organized labor movement, when capitalists organize and finance influential political parties. Even in the Scandinavian countries, strong apex labor organizations have been difficult to sustain and social democracy is somewhat on the decline now.
  80. Jónsson, Guðmundur (8 August 2014). "Iceland and the Nordic Model of Consensus Democracy". Scandinavian Journal of History. 39 (4): 510–528. doi:10.1080/03468755.2014.935473. ISSN 0346-8755. S2CID 143545092.
  81. Heckman, James; Landersøn, Rasmus (2017). "The Scandinavian Fantasy: The Sources of Intergenerational Mobility in Denmark and the US" (PDF). Scandinavian Journal of Economics. 119 (1): 178–230. doi:10.1111/sjoe.12219. PMC 5476927. PMID 28649168.
  82. World Economic Forum (2019). "Mind the 100 Year Gap: 2020". Retrieved January 19, 2021.
  83. Pringle, Keith (2016). "Doing (Oppressive) Gender via Men' s Relations with Children", in: Hayren, A , Henriksson HW (eds.): "Critical Perspectives on Masculinities and Relationalities: In Relation to What?". New York: Springer. pp. 23–34.
  84. Hearn Jeff , Pringle Keith , with members of Critical Research on Men in Europe (2006). European Perspectives on Men and Masculinities: National and Transnational Approaches. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  85. Pringle, Keith (2011). "Comparative Studies of Well- Being in Terms of Gender, Ethnicity and the Concept of Bodily Citizenship: Turning Esping- Andersen on His Head?", in: Oleksy E , Hearn J , Golańska D (eds.): "The Limits of Gendered Citizenship: Contexts and Complexities". London: Routledge. pp. 137–156.
  86. Hearn Jeff , Pringle Keith , Balkmar Dag (2018). "Men, Masculinities and Social Policy", in: Shaver Sheila (ed.): "Handbook of Gender and Social Policy". Oxford: Edward Elgar. pp. 55–73.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. "The "Continuing Revelation" of Scandinavian Economies". America. 22 July 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  88. "What is to be done?". The Economist. 13 January 1990. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  89. "Denmark's prime minister says Bernie Sanders is wrong to call his country socialist". Vox. 31 October 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2019.

Further reading
  • Alestalo, Matti; Hort, Sven E. O.; Kuhnle, Stein (June 2009). "The Nordic Model: Conditions, Origins, Outcomes, Lessons". Working Papers. Hertie School of Governance (41). 55860282.
  • Blyth, Mark (2001). "The Transformation of the Swedish Model: Economic Ideas, Distributional Conflict, and Institutional Change". World Politics. 54 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1353/wp.2001.0020. S2CID 154911616.
  • Booth, Michael (2015). The Almost Nearly Perfect People: Behind the Myth of the Scandinavian Utopia. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780099546078.
  • Brandal, Nikolai; Bratberg, Øivind; Thorsen, Dag Einar (2013). The Nordic Model of Social Democracy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137013262.
  • Bucken-Knapp, Gregg (2009). Defending the Swedish Model: Social Democrats, Trade Unions, and Labor Migration Policy Reform. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739138182.
  • Christiansen, Niels Finn; et al. (2006). The Nordic Model of Welfare: A Historical Reappraisal. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 9788763503419.
  • Hilson, Mary (2008). The Nordic Model: Scandinavia Since 1945. London: Reaktion. ISBN 9781861893666.
  • Igbal, Razi; Todi, Padma (December 2015). "The Nordic Model: Existence, Emergence and Sustainability". Procedia Economics and Finance. 30: 336–351. doi:10.1016/S2212-5671(15)01301-5.
  • Kenworthy, Lane (2014). Social Democratic America. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199322510.
  • Kettunen, Pauli; Lundberg, Urban; Österberg, Mirja; Petersen, Klaus (2015). "The Nordic Model and the Rise and Fall of Nordic Cooperation". In Strang, Joahan (ed.). Nordic Cooperation: A European Region in Transition (illustrated ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315755366-4. ISBN 9781317626954.
  • Kvist, Jon (2012). Changing Social Equality: The Nordic Welfare Model in the 21st Century. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 9781847426604.
  • Lakey, George (2016). Viking Economics: How the Scandinavians Got It Right-and How We Can, Too. Brooklyn: Melville House. ISBN 9781612195360.
  • Mjoset, Lars (Summer 1987). "Nordic Economic Policies in the 1970s and 1980s". International Organization. Cambridge: The MIT Press. 41 (3): 403–456. doi:10.1017/S0020818300027533. JSTOR 2706751.
  • Partanen, Anu (2017). The Nordic Theory of Everything: In Search of a Better Life. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 9780062316554.
  • Sandberg, Åke, ed. (2013). Nordic Lights: Work, Management and Welfare in Scandinavia. Stockholm: SNS Förlag. ISBN 9789186949372.
  • Mobekk, Hilde; Simon, Carsta (2019). "Dugnad: A Fact and a Narrative of Norwegian Prosocial Behavior". Perspectives on Behavior Science. 42 (4): 815–834. doi:10.1007/s40614-019-00227-w. PMC 6901638. PMID 31976461.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.