Climate change and cities

Climate change and cities are deeply connected, with cities being one of the greatest contributors to climate change.[1] Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the effects of climate change,[2] and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the environmental impact of humans.[1][2] More than half of the world's population is in cities, consuming a large portion of food and goods produced outside of cities.[3] Hence, cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions.[3] Moreover, because of processes that create climate conflict and climate refugees, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and concentrating more impoverished peoples in cities.[4]

Because of high density and effects like the urban heat island effect, weather changes due to climate change are likely to greatly effect cities, exacerbating existing problems, such as air pollution, water scarcity and heat illness in the metropolitan areas. Moreover, because most cities have been built on rivers or coastal areas, cities are frequently vulnerable to the subsequent effects of sea level rise, which cause coastal flooding and erosion , and those effects are deeply connected with other urban environmental problems, like subsidence and aquifer depletion.

A report by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group described consumption based emissions as having significantly more impact than production-based emissions within cities. The report estimates that 85% of the emissions associated with goods within a city is generated outside of that city.[5] Climate adaptation and mitigation investments in cities will be important in reducing the impacts of some of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions: for example, increased density allows for redistribution of land use for agriculture and reforestation, improving transportation efficiencies, and greening construction (largely due to cement's outsized role in climate change and improvements in sustainable construction practices and weatherization). Lists of high impact climate change solutions tend to include city-focused solutions; for example, Project Drawdown recommends several major urban investments, including improved bicycle infrastructure,[6] building retrofitting,[7] district heating,[8] public transit,[9] and walkable cities as important solutions.[10]

Because of this, the international community has formed coalitions of cities (such as the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group and ICLEI) and policy goals, such as Sustainable Development Goal 11 ("sustainable cities and communities"), to activate and focus attention on these solutions.

Field of study

The research perspective of cities and climate change, started in the 1990s as the international community became increasingly aware of the potential impacts of climate change.[11] Urban studies scholars Michael Hebbert and Vladmir Jankovic argue that this field of research grew out of a larger body of research on the effects of urban development and living on the environment starting as early as the 1950s.[11]

Two international assessments have been published by the Urban Climate Change Research Network at the The Earth Institute at Columbia University.[12] The first of which was published in, the first of which (ARC3.1) was published in 2011,[13] and the second of which (ARC3.2) was published in 2018.[12] These papers act as summaries of the scholarship for the field similar to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports. A third report is being developed as of 2020.[14]

Cities as laboratories

Part of the reason that cities are being studied, is that cities that invest heavily in experiments of large policies, that can be adopted by larger jurisdictions (such as San Diego's advanced urban planning practices which could be applied elsewhere in the United States).[15][16] Multiple scholars approach this in different ways, but describe this "urban laboratory" environment for testing a wide variety of practices.[17][16] for example the book Life After Carbon documents a number of cities which act as "urban climate innovation laboratories".[18]

Regional and national differences

Cities in different parts of the world face different, unique challenges and opportunities in the face of climate change.

Africa

Africa is urbanizing faster than any other continent.[19] It is estimated that by 2030, more than one billion Africans will live in cities.[20] This rapid urbanization, coupled with the many interlinked and complex challenges as a result of climate change, pose a significant barrier to Africa's sustainable development.[21] Much of this urban development is informal, with urban residents settling in informal settlements and slums often on the outskirts of cities.[22] African cities are exposed to multiple climate threats including floods, drought, water stress, sea level rise, heat waves, storms and cyclones, and the related effects of food insecurity and disease outbreaks like Cholera and Malaria from floods and droughts.[23]

Climate impacts in rural areas, such as desertification, biodiversity loss, soil erosion and declines in agricultural productivity, are also driving rural-urban migration of poor rural communities to cities.[24] To achieve sustainable development and climate resilience in cities in Africa, and elsewhere, it is important to consider these urban-rural interlinkages.[19] Increasing attention is being paid to the important role of peri-urban areas in urban climate resilience, particularly regarding the ecosystem services that these areas provide and which are rapidly deteriorating in Sub-Saharan Africa.[25] Peri-urban ecosystems can provide functions such as controlling floods, reducing the urban heat island effect, purifying air and water, supporting food and water security, and managing waste.[26]

South Asia

South Asia’s urban population grew by 130 million between 2001 and 2011—more than the entire population of Japan—and is poised to rise by almost 250 million by 2030.[27] But, urbanisation in South Asia is characterized by higher poverty, slums, pollution and crowding and congestion.[28] At least 130 million South Asians—more than the entire population of Mexico—live in informal urban settlements characterized by poor construction, insecure tenure and underserviced plots.[27] Despite being a water-rich zone, climate projection models suggest that by 2050, between 52–146 million people living in South Asia could face increased water scarcity due to climate change, accounting for 18% of the global population exposed to water scarcity.[29] Urban water access is particularly critical in South Asia as it remains home to more than 40% of the world’s poor (living on less than USD 1.25 per day) and 35% of the world’s undernourished.[30] A study done of selected Himalayan cities in India and Nepal found that none of them have a robust system of water planning and governance to tackle the water challenges emerging from rapid urbanization and climate change.[31]

United States

Cities play an important role in investing in climate innovation in the United States. Often local climate policies in cities, preempt larger policies pursued by the states or federal government. For example, following the United States withdrawal from the Paris agreement a coalition of cities, under the banner of Mayors National Climate Action Agenda. A 2020 study of US cities found that 45 of the 100 largest cities in the U.S. had made commitments by 2017, which led to a reduction of 6% of U.S. emissions by 2020.[15]

Mayors National Climate Action Agenda
This section is an excerpt from Mayors National Climate Action Agenda[edit]

Mayors National Climate Action Agenda, or Climate Mayors, is an association of United States mayors with the stated goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Founded by Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti, former Houston mayor Annise Parker, and former Philadelphia mayor Michael Nutter, the group represents 435 cities and nearly 20% of the U.S. population.[32][33][34]

Founded in 2014, the organization received one million dollars in start-up funding from the Clinton Global Initiative to support the founding mayors' efforts to organize cities in advance of the signing of the 2015 Paris Agreement.[35]

The organization has stated its commitment to upholding the emissions goals of the Paris Agreement on climate change even if the United States withdraws from the agreement.[36]

International policy

Several major international communities of cities and policies have been formed to include more cities in climate action.

C40
This section is an excerpt from C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group[edit]

The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is a group of 96 cities around the world that represents one twelfth of the world's population and one quarter of the global economy.[37] Created and led by cities, C40 is focused on tackling climate change and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health, wellbeing and economic opportunities of urban citizens.

As of 2019, Mayor of Los Angeles Eric Garcetti serves as the C40's Chairperson, former Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg as President of the Board, and Mark Watts as Executive Director. All three work closely with the 13-member Steering Committee, the Board of Directors[38] and professional staff.[39] The rotating Steering Committee of C40 mayors provides strategic direction and governance.[40] Steering Committee members include: Accra, Bogota, Boston, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Dhaka, Dubai, Durban, Hong Kong, London, Los Angeles, Milan, Seattle, and Stockholm.[41]

Working across multiple sectors and initiative areas, C40 convenes networks[42] of cities providing a suite of services in support of their efforts, including: direct technical assistance; facilitation of peer-to-peer exchange; and research, knowledge management & communications. C40 is also positioning cities as a leading force for climate action around the world, defining and amplifying their call to national governments for greater support and autonomy in creating a sustainable future.[43]

C40's work is made possible by three strategic funders: Bloomberg Philanthropies, Children's Investment Fund Foundation and Realdania.

SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 11[edit]

Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11 or Global Goal 11) is about "sustainable cities and communities" and is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. The SDG 11 is to "Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable".[44] The 17 SDGs take into account that action in one area will affect outcomes in other areas as well, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability.[45] The targets of SDG 11 include investment in public transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and management in participatory and inclusive ways.

SDG 11 has 10 targets to be achieved, and this is being measured with 15 indicators. The seven "outcome targets" include: Safe and affordable housing, affordable and sustainable transport systems; inclusive and sustainable urbanization; protect the world's cultural and natural heritage; reduce the adverse effects of natural disasters; reduce the environmental impacts of cities; provide access to safe and inclusive green and public spaces. The three "means of achieving" targets include: Strong national and regional development planning; implement policies for inclusion, resource efficiency and disaster risk reduction; support least developed countries in sustainable and resilient building.[44][46]

In 2018, 4.2 billion people, or 55 percent of the world's population, lived in cities. By 2050, the urban population is expected to reach 6.5 billion.[47] Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces.[47] The world's cities occupy just 3 per cent of the Earth's land, but account for 60–80 per cent of energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions.[48] Thus cities are both an important cause for and solution to climate change.

The number of slum dwellers reached more than 1 billion in 2018, or 24 per cent of the urban population.[49] The number of people living in slums or informal settlements is highest in Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Central and Southern Asia.[49] In 2019, only half of the world's urban population had convenient access to public transport, defined as living within 500 meters' walking distance from a low-capacity transport system (such as a bus stop) and within 1 km of a high-capacity transport system (such as a railway).[49] In the period 1990–2015, most urban areas recorded a general increase in the extent of built-up area per person. Many regions recorded a consistent increase in the built-up area per capita, with Australia and New Zealand recording the highest values.[49]

Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy
This section is an excerpt from Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy[edit]
The Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy was established 2016 by bringing formally together the Compact of Mayors and the European Union's Covenant of Mayors. It is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change.[50] The Compact highlights cities’ climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution. The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action, both at the local level and around the world.[51] The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change.[52] The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40), ICLEI, and United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), as well as UN-Habitat, to unite against climate change.[53] 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors. The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19% of the global population.[54]

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