Foreign relations of Ethiopia

Many historians trace modern Ethiopia's foreign policy to the reign of Emperor Tewodros II, whose primary concerns were the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders, obtaining technology from Europe (or modernization), and to a lesser degree Ethiopian rights to the monastery of Dar-es-Sultan in the city of Jerusalem.[1] Tewodros' diplomatic efforts, however, ended disastrously with the British expedition of 1868 which concluded with his death. Despite the efforts of his successor Emperor Yohannes IV to establish a relationship with the United Kingdom, Ethiopia was ignored by the world powers until the opening of the Suez Canal, and more important, the Mahdist War, drew outside attention to her once more.[2]

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The same major interests that Tewodros had—the security of Ethiopia's traditional borders and modernization—were once again foremost, as demonstrated by the outcome of the First Italo–Ethiopian War, Ethiopia's admission to the League of Nations (28 September 1923), and the 1935 Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Following the decisive Ethiopian victory at Adwa, Menelik II rapidly negotiated a series of treaties fixing Ethiopia's boundaries—with French Somaliland in March 1897, British Somaliland a few months later in June 1897, with Italian Eritrea in 1900, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1902, British East Africa in 1907, and Italian Somaliland in 1908—which simplified this problem on one level. Although Emperor Haile Selassie agreed to an agreement with the British government to help him restore order to Ethiopia, which benefited him in crushing the Woyane Rebellion, he worked to its eventual termination.

Following World War II, Ethiopia played an active role in regional and global politics. Ethiopia was a charter member of the United Nations and took part in UN operations in Korea in 1951 and the Congo in 1960. Former Emperor Haile Selassie I was also among the founders of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and served as one of a series of rotating OAU chairmen. Although nominally a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, after the 1974 revolution, Ethiopia also moved into a close relationship with the Soviet Union and its allies and supported their international policies and positions until a change of government in 1991.

Today, Ethiopia is a major economic partner of Djibouti and Sudan, although border demarcation negotiations are still ongoing with the Omar Al-Bashir administration. Relations with Somalia have also gradually improved, particularly since the establishment of a new government in Mogadishu. Ethiopia's dealings with Eritrea are extremely tense due to an ongoing border dispute between the two countries.

The Ethiopian government's relations with the U.S. and the West in general have been centered on military and economic cooperation. In addition, Ethiopia maintains diplomatic links with China, Israel, Mexico and India, among other countries. Addis Ababa also serves as the headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the African Union, as well as numerous other continental and international organizations.

Africa
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Algeria
 Côte d'Ivoire
  • Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Abidjan.
 Djibouti See Djibouti–Ethiopia relations

Diplomatic relations between Ethiopia and Djibouti were established in 1984.[3] The border between the two countries is based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897, which was later finalized in a protocol dated 16 January 1954 and rendered effective on 28 February of that year.[4] In October 1991, the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation further solidifying relations. Since 1991, the two countries have signed over 39 protocol agreements.[3]

Djibouti remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. On 13 April 2002, the two countries signed an agreement concerning the use of the Port of Djibouti and the transit of cargo, which was later ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 4 June of the same year.[5] About 70% of the Port of Djibouti's activity consists of imports to and exports from neighboring Ethiopia, which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet. The port also serves as an international refueling center and transshipment hub.[6] Additionally, both countries share ownership of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad.

 EgyptSee Egypt–Ethiopia relations

As two of the oldest independent states in Africa, both countries have an ancient relationship in many forms. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was under the administration of the Coptic Orthodox Church from ancient times until 1959. Ethiopian and Egyptian armies clashed in the early 19th century over control of territory in what is modern Sudan, and Ethiopia's access to the Red Sea. Both countries established formal diplomatic ties in 1927.[7] More recently, because both countries share a special relationship over the Nile basin, both are members of the Nile Basin Initiative.

 Eritrea9 July 2018See Eritrea–Ethiopia relations
  • The boundary between these two countries is based on three treaties between Ethiopia and Italy, in 1900, 1902, and 1908. However no part of the shared boundary was afterwards demarcated.[8]
  • From 1950 until 1993, Eritrea was federated as part of Ethiopia. During much of this period, a number of Eritreans fought for independence from Ethiopia. The federation was ended with an April 1993 plebiscite which approved Eritrea's full independence.
  • Disputes over Eritrea's border alignment led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998–2000), which was resolved by an independent boundary commission's delimitation decision in 2002. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored "human geography," made technical errors in the delimitation, and determined that certain disputed areas, specifically Badme, fall to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision. The peacekeepers monitoring the disputed boundary were forced to withdraw in July 2008[9] having considered their remaining options[10] after experiencing serious difficulties in supporting its troops.[11]
  • In July 2018, leaders both countries signed a peace treaty to put a formal end to a state of war between both nations paving the way for greater economic cooperation and improved ties between them.[12]
 Ghana
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Accra.
  • Ghana has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 KenyaSee Ethiopia–Kenya relations

Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia date back to the 1954, when the Ethiopian authorities under Haile Selassie I established an honorary consulate general in the British Kenya Colony. In 1961, prior to Kenya's independence, Ethiopia appointed its first ambassador to Kenya, and six years later Kenya opened an embassy in Addis Ababa.[13]

The border between the two countries is based on a treaty signed by Ethiopia and Kenya on 9 June 1970, which determines the present-day boundary, abrogating all previous boundary treaties. This border has been subjected to demarcation.[14]

 Morocco
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Rabat.
  • Morocco has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Namibia

Ethiopia–Namibia relations refers to the current and historical relationship between Ethiopia and Namibia.

During the South African occupation of Namibia, Ethiopia was one of the country's leading proponents abroad; Ethiopia and Liberia were the first two states to bring the question of independence for then South West Africa to the United Nations.[15] Namibia gained independence in 1990. In 2007, the two governments signed an agreement which expanded air travel between the two states.[16] In December 2009, Namibia's Foreign Minister, Marko Hausiku met with Ethiopian Foreign Affairs Minister Seyoum Mesfin and noted the economic, science, technical and cultural agreements in place between the two countries and expressed a desire to improve the trade relations.[17]

  • Ethiopia is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.
  • Namibia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Nigeria
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Abuja.
  • Nigeria has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Senegal
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Dakar.
  • Senegal has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 SomaliaSee Ethiopia–Somalia relations

Relations between the peoples of Somalia and Ethiopia stretch back to antiquity, to a common origin. The Ethiopian region is one of the proposed homelands of the Horn of Africa's various Afro-Asiatic communities.[18]

During the Middle Ages, Somali Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gurey or Gragn) led a Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash), which brought three-quarters of the Christian Ethiopian Empire under the power of the Muslim Adal Sultanate.[19][20] With an army mainly composed of Somalis,[21] Many historians trace the origins of tensions between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.[22]

In the 1960s and 1970s, a territorial dispute over the Ogaden region led to various armed confrontations between the Somalian and Ethiopian militaries. The tensions culminated in the Ogaden War, which saw the Somali army capture most of the disputed territory by September 1977, before finally being expelled by a coalition of communist forces.

With changes in leadership in the early 1990s brought on by the start of the Somali Civil War and Ethiopian Civil War, respectively, relations between the Somali and Ethiopian authorities entered a new phase of military cooperation against the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rebel group and its more radical successor Al-Shabaab. In October 2011, a coordinated multinational operation began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia; the Ethiopian military eventually joined the Transitional Federal Government-led mission the following month.[23]

The Federal Government of Somalia was later established on 20 August 2012,[24] representing the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.[24] The following month, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was elected as the new Somali government's first President, with the Ethiopian authorities welcoming his selection and newly appointed Prime Minister of Ethiopia Hailemariam Desalegn attending Mohamud's inauguration ceremony.[25]

 South Africa See Ethiopia–South Africa relations
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Pretoria.
  • South Africa has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Sudan See Ethiopia–Sudan relations

Alodia and the Kingdom of Makuria had some relations with Ethiopia in Medieval times.

The Ethiopian Empire fought against Mahdist Sudan in the Mahdist War.

Ethiopia and Sudan first established formal relations in 1956.[26] Relations between Ethiopia and Sudan were very good following the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, due to the support that the Sudanese government had given to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. However, relations were strained for a time following the 26 June 1995 assassination attempt against Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak as he was leaving the OAU summit meeting in Addis Ababa. The subsequent investigation revealed that Sudan was involved in this act, forcing the Ethiopian government to take a series of steps against Sudan that September, which included closing the Sudanese consulate in Gambela, reducing the number of Sudanese embassy staff, and terminating all Sudan Airways and Ethiopian Airlines flights between the two countries. However the start of the Eritrean-Ethiopian War led to Sudan and Ethiopia put this conflict between them and normalizing their relations by November 1999 when president Omar Hassan al-Bashir made a formal visit to Addis Ababa.[27]

A protocol concerning Ethiopian access to Port Sudan was signed between the two countries 5 March 2000 in Khartoum, and this protocol and its subsequent amendment were ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 3 July 2003.[28]

Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan were delayed by the Second Sudanese Civil War. In May 2008, residents along the western Ethiopian border reportedly discovered that the government had agreed to demarcate this boundary when Sudanese soldiers forced them out of their homes. It was reported that as many as 2,000 people were displaced in the Gambela Region, and the Sudanese army reportedly set fire to two dozen Ethiopian farms and imprisoned 34 people in the Amhara Region. However, Prime Minister Meles Zenawi publicly denied that any Ethiopians had been displaced by this agreement.[29] Negotiations over this boundary continues, with the twelfth meeting of the Boundary Commission announced 28 December 2009 at Mek'ele, with Ethiopian representatives from the Tigray, Benishangul-Gumuz, Amhara and Gambela Regions, and from the Sudanese side representatives of the Upper Nile, Blue Nile, Sennar and Al Qadarif Administrations.[30]

Despite these border tensions, Sudan remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian Petroleum Supplier Enterprise (EPSE), Ethiopia in April 2013 imported around $1.12 billion worth of oil from Sudan over the previous six months. In total, about 85% of Ethiopia's yearly oil consumption comes from Sudan via the Port of Djibouti. Ethiopia and Sudan are also in the process of linking their power grids.[31]

 Tanzania
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Dar-es-Salaam.
  • Tanzania has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Uganda
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Kampala.
  • Uganda has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Zimbabwe
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Harare.
  • Zimbabwe has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Americas
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Argentina
  • Argentina has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Argentina.
 Brazil1951 See Brazil–Ethiopia relations
  • Brazil has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Brasília.
 Canada1956 See Canada–Ethiopia relations
 Chile16 October 1945
  • Chile has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Chile
 Cuba18 July 1975 See Cuba–Ethiopia relations
  • Cuba has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Havana.
 Ecuador
  • Ecuador is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.
  • Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Ecuador.
 Guyana1970

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1970.[34]

 Mexico1949 See Ethiopia–Mexico relations
  • During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was one of the member states of the League of Nations to condemn the occupation of Ethiopia and support the League's sanctions against Italy.[35] Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened.
  • In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia named a square in the capital "Mexico Square." Mexico, in turn, named a metro station in Mexico City called Metro Etiopía.
  • Mexico has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[36]
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[37]
 United States1903 See Ethiopia–United States relations
  • Ethiopia is a strategic partner of the United States in the Global War on Terrorism.
  • U.S. development assistance to Ethiopia is focused on reducing famine vulnerability, hunger, and poverty and emphasizes economic, governance, and social sector policy reforms.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Washington, DC and a consulate-general in Los Angeles.[37]
  • United States has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[38]
  • See also: Ethiopian American
 Uruguay
  • Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Uruguay.
  • Uruguay has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Venezuela
  • Ethiopia does not have an accreditation to Venezuela.
  • Venezuela has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Asia
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Armenia1993
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December 1993.[39]
  • Armenia is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.[39]
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.[39]
  • Both nations have among the oldest Christian communities
 Azerbaijan 2 November 1992[40] See Azerbaijan–Ethiopia relations
  • On November 2, 1992, Azerbaijan and Ethiopia signed a Protocol on the establishment of diplomatic relations.[40]
  • On December 28, 2012, the Republic of Azerbaijan established an embassy in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (in Addis Ababa).[40]
  • Ethiopia maintains a consulate in Baku, Azerbaijan.[41]
 China1970 See China–Ethiopia relations
 Georgia See Ethiopia–Georgia relations
 India1948 See Ethiopia–India relations
 Indonesia See Ethiopia–Indonesia relations
 Israel1992 See Ethiopia–Israel relations
 Japan1930 See Ethiopia–Japan relations
  • Japan and Ethiopia explored diplomatic and economic relations in the 1930s in response to perceived common interests; however these contacts lapsed with the commencement of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
  • Relations were reestablished in 1955 and ambassadors exchanged in 1958.[44]
 Malaysia See Ethiopia–Malaysia relations
  • Ethiopia has a consulate-general in Kuala Lumpur,[45] while Malaysia doesn't have any embassy in Ethiopia.
  • Malaysia is one of the major trade partner and also one of the largest investors in Ethiopia.[46][47][48]
 North Korea1975

Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1975.[49]

 Palestine1989

Palestine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

 Philippines2013

The Philippines and Ethiopia signed their first air agreement in 2014.[50]

 Qatar See Ethiopia–Qatar relations
  • Ethiopia abruptly broke diplomatic ties with Qatar in April 2008, apparently due to statements made by the Al-Jazeera news channel which is based in Qatar.
 South Korea23 December 1963

Between The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and The Republic of Korea were established diplomatic relations on 23 December 1963.[51]

  • Infantry men of 6,037 from Ethiopia have participated in the Korean War to help South Korea.
  • The number of South Koreans living in Ethiopia in 2016 were about 460.
  • The Republic of Korea's official development assistance from 1991 to 2014 was about 88.61m USD.
    • The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has an embassy in Seoul.[52]
    • Since 1965 South Korea has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[53]
 Turkey1896[54]See also Ethiopia–Turkey relations
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Ankara.[55]
  • Turkey has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[56]
  • Trade volume between the two countries was US$398.8 million in 2019 (Ethiopian exports/imports: 27.5/378.3 USD).[57]

Europe
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Belarus
  • Belarus is accredited to Ethiopia from its embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Belarus from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
 CyprusSee Cyprus–Ethiopia relations
 Czech Republic
  • Ethiopia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.
  • Czech Republic has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[58]
 Denmark See Denmark–Ethiopia relations
  • Denmark has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
 Finland1959-07-17 See Ethiopia–Finland relations
  • Ethiopia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
  • Finland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[59]
 FranceSee Ethiopia–France relations
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Paris.
  • France has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Germany1905
  • Both countries signed a treaty of friendship in March 1905; a German Legation was opened in Addis Ababa in 1907, and an Ethiopian embassy in Berlin the same year.
  • Germany supported Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Berlin.
  • Germany has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 GreeceSee Ethiopia–Greece relations
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy.
  • Greece has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Ireland1994See Ethiopia–Ireland relations
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Dublin.
  • Since 1994, Ireland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Italy1889 See Ethiopia–Italy relations
  • Italy was one of the first European countries to open diplomatic relations with Ethiopia.
  • Both countries have fought two wars against each other: the First Italo-Ethiopian War and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
  • Total trade volume between two countries reached 455,928,352.26 Birr in 2011.[60]
  • Italy has an embassy in Addis Ababa.[61]
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Rome.[62]
 Poland
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.
  • Poland has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Romania
 Russia1943-4-21 See Ethiopia–Russia relations
  • Russia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Moscow. The Ethiopian ambassador to Russia is also accredited to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
  • The history of this relationship has its origins in the 19th century. Russia supplied the mountain guns the Ethiopian army used in the Battle of Adwa.
  • More recently, the Soviet Union was a major source of military and economic aid under the Derg and during the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
  • See also Alexander Bulatovich
  • Relations are somewhat unsure owing to Russia's close ties with Ethiopia's neighboring rival, Sudan.
 Serbia1952 See Ethiopia–Serbia relations
  • Serbia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia is accredited Serbia from its embassy in Rome, Italy.
  • Ethiopia is a strong advocate for Serbia on the issue of Kosovo.
  • The first vessel in the Ethiopian Navy was a gift from Yugoslavia.
  • The Serbian embassy is the former villa of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, which was given as a gift by Haile Selassie
  • On 27 January 2012, after traveling to Addis Ababa in order to reaffirm Ethiopia's stance on Kosovo regarding Serbia, Vuk Jeremić and Haile Mariam signed a memorandum of understanding between the two nations' ministries of foreign affairs.[64]
 Spain See Ethiopia–Spain relations
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris, France.
  • Spain has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 SwedenSee Ethiopia–Sweden relations
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Stockholm.
  • Sweden has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 Ukraine1993-4-1
  • Ethiopia is accredited to Ukraine from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
  • Ukraine has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
 United Kingdom
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in London.
  • United Kingdom has an embassy in Addis Ababa.

Oceania
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Australia
  • Australia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
  • Ethiopia has an embassy in Canberra.
 New Zealand
  • Ethiopia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.
  • New Zealand has an embassy in Addis Ababa.


See also

References
  1. The political history of the Ethiopian community, and their struggle for ownership of this small monastery, is retold in Chris Proutky, Empress Taytu and Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 247–256
  2. Although Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).
  3. "Ethiopia - Djibouti relations" Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 9 October 2009)
  4. "Djibouti – Ethiopia Boundary" Archived 9 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Department of State, International Boundary Study No. 154 – 20 February 1976
  5. "Ethio-Djibouti Utilization of Port of Djibouti and Services to Cargo in Transit Agreement Ratification Proclamation No. 284/2002" (Retrieved 13 July 2010)
  6. Bansal, Ridhima. "Current Development Projects and Future Opportunities in Djibouti". Association of African Entrepreneurs. Archived from the original on 27 March 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
  7. "Egyptian-Ethiopian relations". State Information Service.
  8. Findings of the UN Eritea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission Archived 30 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  9. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1827. S/RES/1827(2008) 30 July 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
  10. United Nations Security Council Document 226. Special report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea S/2008/226 7 April 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
  11. United Nations Security Council Document 145. Special report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea S/2008/145 3 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
  12. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-eritrea-economy/ex-foes-ethiopia-eritrea-eye-peace-dividend-after-historic-deal-idUSKBN1JZ2KS
  13. "Ethiopia - Kenya relations" Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (accessed 9 October 2009)
  14. "Ethiopia – Kenya Boundary" Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. State Department International Boundary Study, No. 152 – 15 October 1975
  15. John Dugard (1973). The South West Africa/Namibia Dispute: Documents and Scholarly Writings on the Controversy Between South Africa and the United Nations. University of California Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-520-01886-0.
  16. Ethiopia, Namibia sign air transport agreement Archived 19 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  17. Ethiopia, Namibia working out to step up cooperation areas Archived 28 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  18. Levine, Donald N. (2000). Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0226475611.
  19. Saheed A. Adejumobi, The History of Ethiopia, (Greenwood Press: 2006), p. 178
  20. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2005), p. 163
  21. John L. Esposito, editor, The Oxford History of Islam, (Oxford University Press: 2000), p. 501
  22. David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987).
  23. "Ethiopia Agrees to Back Somalia Military Operations, IGAD Says". Businessweek. 1 December 2011. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  24. "Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'". Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. 21 August 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
  25. Mohamed, Mahmoud (17 September 2012). "Presidential inauguration ushers in new era for Somalia". Sabahi. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
  26. "Ethiopia - Sudan relations" Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 9 October 2009)
  27. David H. Shinn, "Ethiopia: Coping with Islamic Fundamentalism before and after September 11" (last accessed 10 December 2008)
  28. "protocol Agreement on Port Sudan Utilization Ratification Proclamation No. 352/2003" Archived 4 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, "Amendment to the Protocol Agreement, on Port Sudan Utilization, Ratification Proclamation No. 35312003" (Retrieved 13 July 2010)
  29. Alisha Ryu, "Border Demarcation with Sudan Causes Anger in Ethiopia", Voice of America website, 5 June 2008 (Retrieved 3 April 2009)
  30. "Ethio-Sudanese Border Commission Meeting To Open Monday (December 28, 2009)" Archived 20 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 28 December 2009)
  31. Tekle, Tesfa-Alem (30 March 2013). "Sudan: Ethiopia Imports $U.S.1 Billion in Fuel From Sudan Via Djibouti". Sudan Tribune. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
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  33. "Embassy of Ethiopia in Ottawa". Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  34. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  35. Bilateral relations between Mexico and Ethiopia (in Spanish)
  36. Embassy of Mexico in Addis Ababa (in English and Spanish)
  37. Embassy of Ethiopia in Washington, D.C.
  38. "US embassy in Addis Ababa". Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  39. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  40. "Ethiopia". mfa.gov.az. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  41. EmbassyPages. "Consulate of Ethiopia in Baku, Azerbaijan".
  42. "Embassy of Ethiopia in Tel-Aviv". Archived from the original on 16 January 2018. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  43. Embassy of Israel in Addis Ababa
  44. "Bilateral relations" Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (Retrieved 28 December 2009)
  45. "Consulate General Office of Ethiopia, Kuala Lumpur". Ethiopia Consulat General Office. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  46. "Ethiopia Major Trade Partners". Bridgat. Archived from the original on 16 February 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  47. "Ethiopia: Malaysian company to set up 285mln birr mushroom farm establishment". Ethiopian Review. Fresh Plaza. 25 May 2009. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  48. "Malaysian edible oil producer to build a large refinery in Ethiopia". Malaysian Palm Oil Council. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  49. https://www.voakorea.com/a/3849967.html
  50. http://www.rappler.com/business/industries/171-aviation-tourism/71532-philippines-ethiopia-air-agreement
  51. http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/middleeast/countries/20070804/1_24478.jsp?menu=m_30_50%5B%5D
  52. https://search.naver.com/search.naver?where=nexearch&query=%EC%A3%BC%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%ED%8B%B0%EC%98%A4%ED%94%BC%EC%95%84%EB%8C%80%EC%82%AC%EA%B4%80&ie=utf8&sm=tab_she&qdt=0
  53. http://eth.mofa.go.kr/english/af/eth/main/index.jsp
  54. "Relations between Turkey and Ethiopia".
  55. "Relations between Turkey and Ethiopia".
  56. "Relations between Turkey and Ethiopia".
  57. "Relations between Turkey and Ethiopia".
  58. Czech embassy in Ethiopia
  59. "Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about Ethiopia". Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
  60. Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about Italy Archived 31 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  61. Embassy of Italy in Addis Ababa (in English and Italian)
  62. Embassy of Ethiopia in Rome (in Italian)
  63. Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Romenian embassy in Addis Ababa
  64. RTV - 27 January 2012 - Potpisan memorandum o saradnji Srbije i Etiopije (Serbian)

Further reading

 This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/.

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