Inuit clothing

Rear of amauti, bearded seal fur (Iglulik, Nunavut, 1999)

Traditional Inuit culture divided labor by gender, so men and women wore garments specifically tailored to accommodate their distinct roles. The outer layer worn by men was called the qulittaq, and the inner layer was called the atigi.[8] These garments had no front opening, and were donned by pulling them over the head.[5] Men's coats had loose shoulders, which provided the arms with greater mobility when hunting. This also permitted a hunter to pull their arms out of the sleeves and into the coat against the body for warmth without taking the coat off. The closely fitted hood provided protection to the head without obstructing vision. The bottom hems of men's garments were cut straight.[3][9] The hem of the outer coat would be left long in the back so the hunter could sit on the back flap and remain insulated from the snowy ground while watching an ice hole while seal hunting, or while waiting out an unexpected storm.[10] A traditional parka had no pockets; articles were carried in bags or pouches. Some parkas had toggles called amakat-servik on which a pouch could be hung.[11] Men's parkas sometimes had markings on the shoulders to visually emphasize the strength of their arms.[12]

Parkas for women were called amauti and had large pouches called amaut for carrying infants.[3] Numerous regional variations of the amauti exist, but for the most part, the hem of the amauti is left longer and cut into rounded apron-like flaps, which are called kiniq in the front and akuq in the back.[13][14][9] The infant rests against the mother's bare back inside the pouch, and a belt called a qaksun-gauti is cinched around the mother's waist on the outside of the amauti, supporting the infant without restraining it.[11] At rest, the infant usually sits upright with legs bent, although standing up inside the amaut is possible.[15] The roomy garment can accommodate the child being moved to the front to breastfeed and eliminate urine and feces.[16] Women's parkas sometimes had markings on the forearms as a visual reminder of their sewing skills.[12]

Three layers of winter footwear: short inner slipper, inner boot (fur inwards), outer boot (fur outwards).

Both men and women wore trousers called qarliik. During the winter, men typically wore two pairs of fur pants for lengthy hunting trips, while women only needed a single layer as they usually did not go outdoors for long periods during winter.[17][18] Qarliik were waist-high and held on loosely by a drawstring. The shape and length depended on the material being used, with caribou trousers having a bell shape to capture warm air rising from the boot, and seal or polar bear trousers being generally straight-legged.[19] In some regions, particularly the Western Arctic, men, women, and children sometimes wore atartaq, leggings with attached feet similar to hose, although these are no longer common.[17][19]

In the deepest part of winter, the traditional outfit could include up to five layers of leg coverings and footwear, depending on the weather and terrain.[20][21] Traditionally, these garments were almost always made of caribou or sealskin, although today boots are sometimes made with heavy fabric like canvas or denim.[22][23] The traditional first layer was a set of stockings called alirsiik, which had the fur facing inwards. The second was a pair of short socks called ilupirquk, and third was another set of stockings, called pinirait; both of which had outward-facing fur. The fourth layer was the boots, called kamiit or mukluks.[lower-alpha 2] These could be covered with the tuqtuqutiq, a kind of short, thick-soled overshoe that provided additional insulation to the feet.[20] These overshoes could be worn indoors as slippers while the kamiit were drying out.[25]

During the wet season of summer, waterproof boots were worn instead of insulating fur boots. These were usually made of sealskin with the fur removed. To provide grip on icy ground, boot soles could be pleated, or sewn with strips of dehaired seal skin.[20][26] Boot height varied depending on the task – sealskin boots could be made thigh-high or even chest-high if they were to be used for wading into water, similar to modern hip boots or waders.[22] Boots intended for use in wet conditions sometimes included drawstring closures at the top to keep water out.[27] In modern times, boot tops made of skin may be sewn to mass-produced rubber boot bottoms to create a boot that has the warmth of skin clothing with the waterproofing and grip of artificial materials. These are useful for fishermen and people foraging for sea urchins and sea cucumbers.[28]

Men's seal fur gloves with sealskin palm and trim, East Greenland Inuit

Most upper garments included a built-in hood, but some groups like the Kalaallit of Greenland wore separate hats instead, in a similar fashion to the Yupik peoples of Siberia. Many Canadian Inuit wear a cap beneath their hood for additional insulation during winter. During summer, when the weather is warmer and mosquitoes are in season, the hood is not used; instead, the cap is draped with a scarf which covers the neck and face to provide protection from insects.[29]

Inuit mitts are called pualuuk, and are usually worn in a single layer. If necessary, two layers can be used, but this reduces dexterity. Most mitts are caribou skin, but sealskin is used for work in wet conditions, while bear is preferred for icing sled runners as it does not shed when damp. The surface of the palm can be made of skin with the fur removed to increase the grip. Sometimes a cord was attached to the mitts and worn across the shoulders, preventing them from being lost.[30]

Children's clothing was similar in form and function to adult clothing, but typically made of softer materials like caribou fawn, fox skin, or rabbit. Once children were old enough to walk, they would wear a one-piece suit called an atajuq, similar in form to a modern blanket sleeper. This garment had attached feet and often mittens as well, and unlike an adult's parka, it opened at the front. Older children wore outfits with separate parkas and trousers like adults.[31]

Amautis for female children had amaut, and they sometimes carried younger siblings in them to assist their mother.[32] Clothing for girls changed at puberty. Amauti tails were made longer, and the hood and amaut were enlarged. Hairstyles for pubescent girls also changed to indicate their new status.[33]

The hide of the barren-ground caribou, an Arctic subspecies of caribou, was the most important source of material for clothing of all kinds, as it was readily available, versatile, and, when left with the fur intact, very warm.[40] Caribou fur grows in two layers, which trap air, which is then warmed up by body heat. The skin itself is thin and supple, making it light and flexible.[37] Each piece of the hide had qualities that made it suitable for various uses: for example, the tough leg skins were used for items that required durability.[41] Caribou sheds badly when exposed to moisture, so it is not suitable for wet-weather garments.[42] Caribou hide could also be shaved and used for footwear and decorative fringe.[43]

The hide of Arctic-dwelling seals is both lightweight and water repellant, making it ideal as single-layer clothing for the wet weather of summer. Year-round, it was used to make clothing for water-based activities like kayaking and fishing, as well as for boots and mittens.[14] Seal hide is porous enough to allow sweat to evaporate, making it ideal for use as boots. Of the four Arctic seals, the ringed seal and the bearded seal are the most commonly used for skin clothing, as they have a large population and are widely distributed. Harbour seals have a wide distribution but lower population, so they are less commonly used. Clothing made from harp seals has been reported, but documentation is lacking.[44] The skin of younger seals killed in autumn is traditionally preferred for aesthetic reasons, as it is darker and less likely to be damaged.[35]

Loonskin cap, Greenland Inuit

Like caribou fur, polar bear fur grows in dual layers, and is prized for its heat-trapping and water-resistant properties. The long guard hairs of dogs, wolves, and wolverines were preferred as trim for hoods and mittens.[45] The fur of arctic foxes was sometimes also used for trim, and was suitable for hunting caps and the insides of socks. In some areas, women's clothing was made of fox hides, and it was used to keep the breasts warm during breastfeeding. Adult musk-ox hide is too heavy to be used for most clothing, but it was used for mittens as well as summer caps, as the long hairs kept mosquitoes away. It was also suitable as bedding.[46][42] In modern times, wool made from musk-ox down is sold commercially. The skins of small animals like marmots and Arctic ground squirrels are used for upper garments and decorations.[42]

The skin of cetaceans like beluga whales and narwhals was sometimes used for boot soles.[43] Whale sinew, especially from the narwhal, was prized as thread for its length and strength. Tusks from narwhal and walrus provided ivory, which was used for sewing tools, clothing fasteners, and ornaments. In Alaska, fish skins were sometimes used for clothing and bags, but this is not well-documented in Canada.[47]

The use of bird skins, including eider duck, auk, cormorant, guillemot, ptarmigan, loon, puffin, swan, and goose, has been documented by all Inuit groups. The skin, feet, and bones were used to make clothing of all kinds, as well as tools, containers, and decorations.[47] Historically, eider duck was most heavily used by the Inuit of the Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay, as there were no caribou on the islands.[48]

A modern metal ulu in the western Arctic style

Inuit seamstresses traditionally used tools handcrafted from animal materials like bones, antlers, baleen, and ivory, including the ulu knife, needle, awl, thimble and thimble-guard, and a needlecase.[40][14] Ulu knives were particularly important tools for seamstresses, and were often buried with their owner at her death.[55] Wood and stone were often used for ulu, and when available, meteoric iron or copper was cold worked into blades by a process of hammering, folding, and filing.[56][52]

After contact with Western explorers, the Inuit began to make use of sheet tin, brass, non-meteoric iron, and even steel, obtained by trading or scrapping.[52] They also adopted steel sewing needles, which were more durable than bone needles.[57] European contact also brought scissors to the Inuit, but they were not widely adopted, as they do not cut furry hides as cleanly as sharp knives.[58] Traditionally, Inuit seamstresses used thread made from sinew, called ivalu. Modern seamstresses generally use thread made from linen, cotton, or synthetic fibers, which are easier to find and less difficult to work with, although these materials are less waterproof compared to ivalu.[59][60]

Sealskin being dried on a rack at a camp on the Hudson Strait, 1926

The first stage was the harvesting of the skin from the animal carcass after a successful hunt. Generally, the hunter would cut the skin in such a way that it could be removed in one piece. Skinning and butchering an adult caribou could take an experienced hunter up to an hour.[61] While butchering of caribou was handled by men, butchering of seals was mostly handled by women.[62]

After the skin was removed, the hides would be dried on wooden frames, then laid on a scraping platform and scraped of fat and other tissues with an ulu knife until soft and pliable.[40][63][64] Most skins, including bird skins, were processed in roughly the same way, although processing oily skins like sealskin and sometimes polar bear skin required the additional step of degreasing the hide by washing it with soap or dragging it across gravel.[65][66] If the hide was soiled with blood, rubbing with snow or soaking in cold water could remove the stain.[67] Sometimes the fur would need to be removed so the hide could be used for things like boot soles, which could be done with an ulu, or if the hair had been loosened by putrefaction or soaking in water, a blunt scraping tool could also suffice.[63] The hide would be chewed, rubbed, wrung up, soaked in liquid, and even stamped on to soften it further for sewing.[68][69] The softening process was repeated until the women judged the skin was ready. Badly processed hides would stiffen or rot, so correct preparation of hides was essential to ensure the quality of the clothing.[53]

Girl's waterproof parka made from seal gut skin, unspecified Eastern Greenland Inuit group

When the hide was ready, the process of creating each piece could begin. The first step was measuring, a detailed process given that each garment was tailored for the wearer. No standardized sewing pattern was used, although older garments were sometimes used as models for new ones.[3] Traditionally, measurement was done by eye and by hand alone, although some seamstresses now make bespoke paper patterns following a hand and eye measurement process.[25][23] The skins were then marked for cutting, traditionally by biting or pinching, or with an edged tool, although in modern times ink pens may be used. The direction of the fur flow is taken into account when marking the outline of the pieces. Most garments were sewn with fur flowing from top to bottom, but strips used for trim had a horizontal flow for added strength.[70] Once marked, the pieces of each garment would be cut out using the ulu, taking care not to stretch the skin or damage the fur. Adjustments were made to the pattern during the cutting process as need dictated. The marking and cutting process for a single amauti could take an experienced seamstress an entire hour.[71]

Once the seamstress was satisfied that each piece was the appropriate size and shape, the pieces were sewn together to make the complete garment. Tight, high-quality seams was essential to prevent cold air and moisture from entering the garment.[51] Four main stitches were used, from most to least common: the overcast stitch, the tuck or gathering stitch, the running stitch, and the waterproof stitch, a uniquely Inuit development.[71][72] The overcast stitch was used for the seams of most items. The tuck or gathering stitch was used to join pieces of uneven size. The running stitch was used to attach facings or insert material of a contrasting color. Betty Kobayashi Issenman described the waterproof stitch, or ilujjiniq, as being "unequalled in the annals of needlework."[73] Two lines of stitching made up one waterproof seam, which were mostly employed on boots and mitts. On the first line, the needle pierced partway through the first skin, but entirely through the second; this process was reversed on the second line, creating a seam in which the needle and thread never fully punctured both skins at the same time. Ivalu swells with moisture, filling the needle holes and making the seam waterproof.[74]

Once created, Inuit skin clothing must be properly maintained, or it will become brittle, lose hair, or even rot. Warmth and moisture are the biggest risks to clothing, as they promote the growth of decay-inducing bacteria. If the garment is soiled with grease or blood, the stain must be rubbed with snow and beaten out quickly.[75] In addition to practical considerations, wearing clean clothing on a hunt was important, because it was considered a sign of respect for the spirits of the animals.[76]

Historically, the Inuit used two main tools to keep their garments dry and cold. The tiluqtut, or snow beater, was a rigid implement made of bone, ivory, or wood. It was used to beat the snow and ice from clothing prior to entering the home. Once inside the home, the garments were laid over a drying rack near a heat source so they could be dried slowly. All clothing, especially footwear, was checked daily for damage and repaired immediately if any was discovered. Boots were chewed, stretched, or rubbed across a boot softener to maintain durability and comfort.[75][77] Although women were primarily responsible for sewing new garments, both men and women were taught to repair clothing and carried sewing kits while travelling for emergency repairs.[68]

In addition to their everyday clothing, many Inuit had a set of ceremonial clothing made of short-haired summer skins, worn for dancing or other ceremonial occasions. In particular, the dance clothing of the Copper Inuit, a Canadian Inuit group from the territory of Nunavut, has been extensively studied and preserved in museums worldwide.[109] Dance clothing was generally not hooded; instead, special dancing caps were worn. These dancing caps were often intricately sewn with stripes and other decorations. The Copper Inuit sewed the beaks of birds like loons and thick-billed murres to the crown of their caps, invoking the vision and speed of the animals.[110] Traditional ceremonial clothing also incorporated masks made of wood and skin, although this practice largely died out after the arrival of missionaries and other outsiders.[111]

Inuit shamans, called angakkuq,[lower-alpha 3] often had distinct clothing such as headdresses and belts that differentiated them from laypeople. Masks could be worn to invoke supernatural abilities, and unique head coverings, particularly of birdskin, provided a sense of power during spiritual rituals.[113] The use of stoat skins for a shaman's clothing invoked the animal's intellect and cunning.[114] The fur used for a shaman's belt was white, and the belts themselves were adorned with amulets and tools, often representative of important events in the shaman's life.[113][115] Mittens and gloves, though not visually distinct, were important components of shamanic rituals.[116]

Inuit clothing was traditionally tailored in distinct styles for men and women, but there is evidence from oral tradition and archaeological findings that biological sex and gendered clothing was not always aligned.[83][117] Some shamanic clothing for men, particularly among the Copper Inuit, included design elements generally reserved for women, such as frontal apron-flaps or kiniq, symbolically bringing male and female together.[118] In some cases, the gender identity of the shaman could be fluid or non-binary, which was reflected in their clothing through the use of both male and female design elements.[112]

In some areas of the Canadian Arctic, such as Igloolik and Nunavik, there was historically a third gender identity known as sipiniq[lower-alpha 4] ("one who had changed its sex").[120] People who were born sipiniq were believed to have changed their physical sex at the moment of birth, primarily from male to female (although the reverse could occur, very rarely).[121] Female-bodied sipiniit were socially regarded as male, and would be named after a deceased male relative, perform a male's tasks, and would wear clothing tailored for such tasks.[120] Kobayashi Issenman regarded this as a spiritual practice whereby the child incorporated the spirit of the deceased relative, rather than an expression of the child being transgender.[119]

Individual skin garments are rarely found intact, as animal hide is susceptible to decay. Evidence for the historic consistency of traditional Inuit clothing is usually inferred from sewing tools and art objects found at archaeological sites.[122] In what is now Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, archaeologists have found carved figurines and statuettes at sites originating from the Mal'ta–Buret' culture which appear to be wearing tailored skin garments, although these interpretations have been contested. The age of these figurines indicates that, if the interpretations are correct, Inuit skin clothing may have originated as early as 24,000 years ago.[123] Tools for skin preparation and sewing made from stone, bone, and ivory, found at prehistoric archaeological sites, confirm that skin clothing was being produced in northern regions as early as 2500 BCE.[124] Archaeological evidence of seal processing by the Dorset culture, a Paleo-Inuit culture, has been found at Philip's Garden in the Port au Choix Archaeological Site in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Radiocarbon dating indicates the site spanned approximately eight centuries, from about 50 BCE at the earliest to about 770 CE at the latest.[lower-alpha 5][125]

Occasionally, scraps of frozen skin garments or even whole garments are found at archaeological sites. Some of these items come from the Dorset culture era of approximately 500 BCE to 1500 CE, but the majority are from the Thule culture era of approximately 1000 to 1600 CE.[126][127] Although some style elements like hood height and flap size have changed, structural elements like patterns, seams, and stitching of these remnants and outfits are very similar to garments from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, which confirms significant consistency in construction of Inuit clothing over centuries.[128][129][127]

In 1972, a group of eight well-preserved and fully dressed mummies were found at Qilakitsoq, an archaeological site on Nuussuaq Peninsula, Greenland. They have been carbon-dated to c. 1475, and analysis indicates that the garments were prepared and sewn in the same manner as modern skin clothing from the Kalaallit people of the region.[130] Archaeological digs in Utqiagvik, Alaska from 1981 to 1983 uncovered the earliest known samples of clothing of the Kakligmiut people, carbon-dated to c. 1510. The construction of these garments indicates that Kakligmiut garments underwent little change between approximately 1500–1850.[131]

As a result of socialization and trade, Inuit groups throughout their history incorporated clothing designs and styles between themselves, as well as from other Indigenous Arctic peoples such as the Chukchi, Koryak, and Yupik peoples of Siberia and the Russian Far East, the Sámi people of Scandinavia, and various non-Inuit North American Indigenous groups.[2][132] There is evidence indicating that prehistoric and historic Inuit gathered in large trade fairs to exchange materials and finished goods; the trade network that supported these fairs extended across some 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of Arctic territory.[133]

Group of Inuit in Greenland wearing cloth garments, between 1888 and 1889.

A 1654 painting by Salomon von Hauen, commissioned at Bergen, is the oldest known portrait depicting Kalaallit people in traditional clothing. It shows a group of four Kalaallit who were kidnapped by a Danish trade ship. Each is shown wearing traditional skin clothing similar to that found with the bodies at Qilakitsoq.[134]

Beginning in the 1700s, contact with non-Inuit, including American, European, and Russian traders and explorers, began to have a greater influence on the construction and appearance of Inuit clothing.[2] These people brought trade goods such as metal tools, beads, and fabric which began to be integrated into traditional clothing.[135][131] For example, imported duffel cloth was useful for boot and mitt liners.[136]

It is important to note that these new materials, tools, and techniques generally did not alter the basic structure of the traditional skin clothing system, the basic composition of which has always remained consistent. In many cases the Inuit were dismissive of so-called "white men's clothing"; the Inuvialuit referred to cloth pants as kam'-mik-hluk, meaning "makeshift pants".[137] The Inuit selectively adopted foreign elements that simplified the construction process (such as metal needles) or aesthetically modified the appearance of garments (such as seed beads and dyed cloth), while rejecting elements that were detrimental (such as metal fasteners, which may freeze and snag, and synthetic fabrics, which absorb perspiration).[57][136][137][138][139]

European and American clothing never fully replaced the traditional clothing complex of the Inuit, but it did gain a certain degree of traction in some areas. Sometimes this was not by choice, as in the cases of Labrador, Canada, and Kaktovik, Alaska, where Christian missionaries in the 18th century insisted that Inuit women wear foreign garments such as long skirts or dresses to religious services because Inuit garments were seen as inappropriate.[136][140] Following the 1783 establishment of a Russian trading post on Kodiak Island in what is now Alaska, use of sea otter and bear pelts for traditional garments was restricted, because the Russians preferred to sell the valuable pelts internationally.[139]

In other cases, the Inuit adopted these garments themselves. They made use of ready-made clothing and shawls sold by the Hudson's Bay Company.[141] Nunavimiut men adopted crocheted woolen hats for beneath their hoods.[137] In 1914, the arrival of the Canadian Arctic Expedition in the territory of the previously-isolated Copper Inuit prompted the virtual disappearance of the unique Copper Inuit clothing style, which by 1930 was almost entirely replaced by a combination of styles imported by newly-immigrated Inuvialuit and European-Canadian clothing such as the Mother Hubbard dress.[142]

Inuit throat singers in 1999 wearing modern-made clothing of traditional design, incorporating fabric, seed bead designs, and animal fur

The production of traditional skin garments for everyday use has declined in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as a result of loss of skills combined with shrinking demand. The introduction of the Canadian Indian residential school system to northern Canada, beginning with the establishment of Christian mission schools in the 1860s, was extremely destructive to the ongoing cycle of elders passing down knowledge to younger generations through informal means.[143][144] Children who were sent to residential schools or stayed at hostels to attend school outside their communities were often separated from their families for years, in an environment that made little to no attempt to include their language, culture, or traditional skills.[145] Children who lived at home and attended day schools were at school for long hours most days, leaving little time for families to teach them traditional clothing-making and survival skills.[146] Until very recently, day schools did not include material on Inuit culture, compounding the cultural loss.[147] The time available for traditional skills was further reduced in areas of significant Christian influence, as Sundays were seen as a day of rest on which to attend church services, not to work.[148] Lacking the time and inclination to practice, many younger people lost interest in creating traditional clothing.[148]

Shrinking demand has also been a factor in the decline of skin clothing. The advent of indoor heating makes insulated indoor clothing less vital. Many Inuit work outdoor jobs for which fur clothing would be impractical. Purchasing manufactured clothing saves time and energy, and it can be easier to maintain than traditional skin clothing.[149] The availability of pelts also impacted the production of skin garments. In the early 20th century, overhunting led to a significant depletion of caribou herds in some areas.[150] Starting in the 1980s, opposition to seal hunting from the animal rights movement led to a major decline in the export market for seal pelts, and a corresponding drop in hunting as a primary occupation.[151][148] The combination of these various factors resulted less demand for elders to create skin garments, which made it less likely that they would pass on their skills.[147] By the mid-1990s, the skills necessary to make Inuit skin clothing were in danger of being completely lost.[152]

Since that time, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. By the 1990s, both the residential schools and the hostel system in the Yukon and the Northwest Territories[lower-alpha 6] had been abolished entirely.[153] In northern Canada, many schools at all stages of education have now introduced courses which teach traditional skills and cultural material.[154] Outside of the formal education system, cultural literacy programs such as Miqqut, Somebody's Daughter, Reclaiming our Sinew, and Traditional Skills Workshop, spearheaded by organizations like Pauktuutit (Inuit Women of Canada) and Ilitaqsiniq (Nunavut Literacy Council), have been successful in reintroducing modern Inuit to traditional clothing-making skills.[155][156] Modern-day techniques, such as the use of wringer washing machines to soften hides and the application of Mr. Clean all-purpose cleaner to produce soft white leather, ease the time and effort needed for production, making the work more attractive.[148] Prepared skins are also available at some northern supply stores today, allowing seamstresses to shop directly for their desired materials.[35] Modern Inuit clothing has been studied as an example of sustainable fashion and vernacular design.[157][158]

Although full outfits of traditional skin clothing are now much less commonly worn, fur boots, coats and mittens are still popular, and skin clothing is particularly preferred for winter wear, especially for Inuit people who still make their living hunting and trapping.[151] Traditional skin clothing is also preferred for special occasions like drum dances, weddings, and holiday festivities.[159] Even garments made from woven or synthetic fabric today adhere to ancient forms and styles in a way that makes them simultaneously traditional and contemporary.[140][160] Much of the clothing worn today by Inuit dwelling in the Arctic has been described as "a blend of tradition and modernity."[149] Kobayashi Issenman describes the continued use of traditional fur clothing as not simply a matter of practicality, but "a visual symbol of one's origin as a member of a dynamic and prestigious society whose roots extend into antiquity."[149]

Inuit skin clothing has long been of academic interest to historians and anthropologists. Ethnographers such as John Murdoch published descriptions of Inuit clothing with detailed illustrations as early as 1892, based on fieldwork in northwest Alaska.[161] The 1914 dissertation of Danish archaeologist Gudmund Hatt based his theory of Inuit origins on a study of Inuit clothing in museums across Europe.[162] Later scholarship disputed his migration theory, but his studies of Inuit clothing, with their elaborate images drawn by his wife Emilie Demant Hatt, have been described as "groundbreaking in their meticulousness and scope".[162] Although his style of grand cross-cultural study has fallen out of the mainstream, scholars have continued to make in-depth studies of the clothing of various Inuit and Arctic groups.[163]

Many museums have extensive collections of historical Inuit garments. The collection of the National Museum of Denmark contains over 2100 historic skin clothing items from various Arctic cultures, with examples collected and donated as early as 1830.[164] In 1851, Finnish ethnographer Henrik Johan Holmberg acquired several hundred artifacts, including skin garments, from the Alaskan Inuit and the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, which were acquired by the National Museum in 1852.[165] Noted anthropological expeditions such as the Gjøa Expedition (1903–1906) and the Fifth Thüle Expedition (1921–1924) brought back and donated to the museum a combined total of over 800 North American Inuit garments.[166] The ceremonial dance clothing of the Copper Inuit is also well-represented in museums worldwide.[114] In 2001, the British Museum in London presented Annuraaq, an exhibition of Inuit clothing.[167]

Collaborations between scholars and Inuit people and communities have been important for the preservation of traditional knowledge. In the 1980s, Inuit clothing expert Bernadette Driscoll Engelstad travelled to museums in Europe and Canada with Inuit seamstresses to study historical garments. Their work has been credited with having "triggered a renaissance in clothing manufacture in some Canadian communities."[168] Around the same time, Arctic anthropologist Susan Kaplan began to work with North Greenland Inuit and Labrador Inuit at the Peary–MacMillan Arctic Museum on similar fieldwork.[168]

Collaborative projects such as Skin Clothing Online, from the National Museum of Denmark, Greenland National Museum, and Museum of Cultural History, Oslo, have made thousands of high-resolution images and dozens of 3D scans of hundreds of pieces of skin clothing from various Arctic cultures freely accessible to researchers and the general public.[164][169][170]

Another significant area of research on Inuit skin clothing has been its effectiveness, especially as contrasted with modern winter clothing made from synthetic materials. Despite significant oral testimony from Inuit elders on the effectiveness of caribou-skin garments, little direct research was performed on the topic until the 1990s.[171] A study published in 1995 compared caribou-skin clothing to mass-produced military and expedition gear, and found that the Inuit garments were significantly warmer, and provided a greater degree of perceived comfort than the mass-produced items.[172] Further studies have shown that the traditional Inuit fur ruff is the most efficient system for preventing heat transfer from the face.[173]