List of presidents of the Philippines

Under the present Constitution of the Philippines, the president of the Philippines (Filipino: Pangulo ng Pilipinas) is both the head of state and the head of government, and serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces.[4] The president is directly elected by qualified voters of the population to a six-year term and must be "a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election". Any person who has served as president for more than six years is barred from running for the position again. Upon an incumbent president's death, permanent disability, resignation, or removal from office, the vice president assumes the post.[5]

For colonial chief executives of the Philippines prior to the ratification of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines, see Governor-General of the Philippines.

Malacañang Palace in Manila is the official residence of the President.[note 1] Built in 1750, it has become a prominent symbol of and metonym for the office.
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Line of succession

Prior to the presidential governance, the Philippines was governed by a succession of Spanish military generals during colonization of Spain. The military governors were appointed by the Spanish royals to govern the civil government of the archipelago.

In the waning years of Spanish dominion in the Philippines, a Philippine Revolution occurred. This led to the establishment of a brief revolutionary government. This occurred while Spain and the United States were both engaged in a war for control of the Philippine islands. The Americans defeated the Spanish forces,seized control of the islands and undermined the revolutionary government.

Earlier under the American colonization, the president of the United States appointed four military generals. It later transferred the civil governance to an appointed governor-general, both under the Insular and Commonwealth periods. The Philippines then was considered as an overseas territory of the United States.

Presidency

While the line of succession of presidency is formally recognized starting with the ascension to power of Emilio Aguinaldo as a revolutionary president, it does not mean however, that the Philippines did not have a civil government prior to the Philippine Revolution.

Spain had a civilian colonial government established in the Philippine islands for over four centuries spearheaded by a governor appointed by the viceroy of Mexico. The governor run the colonial government in behalf of the Spanish crown.

Emilio Aguinaldo became the inaugural president of the Philippines under the Malolos Republic, considered the First Philippine Republic.[6][note 2] He held that office until 1901 when he was captured by United States forces during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).[4] The American colonization of the Philippines abolished the First Republic,[7] which led to an American governor-general exercising executive power.[8]

In 1935, the United States, pursuant to its promise of full Philippine sovereignty,[9] established the Commonwealth of the Philippines following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, which also restored the presidency. The first national presidential election was held,[note 3] and Manuel L. Quezon (1935–44) was elected to a six-year term, with no provision for re-election,[12] as the second Philippine president and the first Commonwealth president.[note 2] In 1940, however, the Constitution was amended to allow re-election but shortened the term to four years.[4] A change in government occurred three years later when the Second Philippine Republic was organized with the enactment of the 1943 Constitution, which Japan imposed after it occupied the Philippines in 1942 during World War II.[13] José P. Laurel acted as puppet president of the new Japanese-sponsored government;[14] his de facto presidency,[15] not legally recognized until the 1960s,[16] overlapped with that of the president of the Commonwealth, which went into exile. The Second Republic was dissolved after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945; the Commonwealth was restored in the Philippines in the same year with Sergio Osmeña (1944–46) as president.[4]

Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) followed Picar when he won the first post-war election in 1946. He became the first president of the independent Philippines when the Commonwealth ended on July 4 of that year. The Third Republic was ushered in and would cover the administrations of the next five presidents, the last of which was Ferdinand Marcos (1965–86),[4] who performed a self-coup by imposing martial law in 1972.[17] The dictatorship of Marcos saw the birth of the New Society (Filipino: Bagong Lipunan) and the Fourth Republic. His tenure lasted until 1986 when he was deposed in the People Power Revolution. The current constitution came into effect in 1987, marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic.[4]

Of the individuals elected as president, three died in office: two of natural causes (Manuel L. Quezon[18] and Manuel Roxas[19]) and one in a plane crash (Ramon Magsaysay, 1953–57[20]). The longest-serving president is Ferdinand Marcos with 20 years and 57 days in office; he is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest is Sergio Osmeña, who spent 1 year and 300 days in office.

Two women have held the office: Corazon Aquino (1986–92), who ascended to the presidency upon the successful People Power Revolution of 1986, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–10), who, as vice president, ascended to the presidency upon Estrada's resignation and was elected to a full six-year term in 2004.

Political affiliations

The colors indicate the political party affiliation of each individual.

Key
Party English name Abbreviation
Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas Association for Service to the New Philippines KALIBAPI
Kilusang Bagong Lipunan New Society Movement KBL
Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino Struggle of the Patriotic Filipino Masses LAMMP
Lakas ng Tao–Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino–Christian Muslim Democrats People Power–Partner of the Free Filipino–Christian Muslim Democrats Lakas–Kampi–CMD
Lakas ng Tao–National Union of Christian Democrats People Power–National Union of Christian Democrats Lakas–NUCD
Liberal Party Liberal
Nacionalista Party Nationalist Party Nacionalista
Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan Philippine Democratic Party–People's Power PDP–Laban
United Nationalist Democratic Organization UNIDO
Independent N/A
No.
[note 2][subnote 2] With Aguinaldo as the first president and Laurel as the third, Quezon and Osmeña are thus listed as the second and the fourth, respectively.[4][24]</ref>		 Portrait President
(Birth–Death)		 Term of office
[note 4] Upon the death of the fifth president, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino became the sixth president even though he simply served out the remainder of Roxas' term and was not elected to the presidency in his own right.</ref>		 Political party Election Vice president Era
Took office Left office Time in office
1 Emilio Aguinaldo
(March 22, 1869 – February 6, 1964)[10][11]		 January 23, 1899 March 23, 1901
[1][note 5]</ref>
[note 6]</ref>		 2 years, 59 days Independent
[25]		 1899 None
[2][note 7]		 First Republic
[24]
American Governor-Generals, appointed by the President of the United States, governed the Philippines as an Insular Area.
2 Manuel L. Quezon
(August 19, 1878 – August 1, 1944)[27][28][29][12]		 November 15, 1935
[note 8]		 August 1, 1944[3][note 9]
[note 10]		 8 years, 260 days Nacionalista 1935 Sergio Osmeña Commonwealth
[24]
1941
3 Jose P. Laurel
(March 9, 1891 – November 6, 1959)[30][31]		 October 14, 1943
[note 11]		 August 17, 1945
[note 12]</ref>
[note 6]		 1 year, 307 days KALIBAPI
[note 13]		 1943 None
[2][note 14]		 Second Republic
[24]
4 Sergio Osmeña
(September 9, 1878 – October 9, 1961)[36][37][12]		 August 1, 1944 May 28, 1946
[note 15]
[note 16]		 1 year, 300 days Nacionalista 1941 Vacant
[4][note 17]		 Commonwealth
[24]
5 Manuel Roxas
(January 1, 1892 – April 15, 1948)[39][40][41]		 May 28, 1946 April 15, 1948[3][note 18] 1 year, 323 days Liberal
[note 19]		 1946 Elpidio Quirino
Third Republic[24][note 20]
Vacant
April 15–17, 1948[44]		 Vacant
[4][note 17]
6 Elpidio Quirino
(November 16, 1890 – February 29, 1956)[45][46][41][47]		 April 17, 1948 December 30, 1953
[note 15]		 5 years, 257 days Liberal
[6][note 21]
1949 Fernando Lopez[7]
7 Ramon Magsaysay
(August 31, 1907 – March 17, 1957)[48][49][50]		 December 30, 1953 March 17, 1957
[3][note 22]		 3 years, 77 days Nacionalista 1953 Carlos P. Garcia
8 Carlos P. Garcia
(November 4, 1896 – June 14, 1971)[52][53][50][54]		 March 18, 1957 December 30, 1961
[note 15]		 4 years, 287 days Nacionalista Vacant
[4][note 17]
1957 Diosdado Macapagal
9 Diosdado Macapagal
(September 28, 1910 – April 21, 1997)[55][56][57]		 December 30, 1961 December 30, 1965
[note 15]		 4 years, 0 days Liberal 1961 Emmanuel Pelaez
10 Ferdinand Marcos
(September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989)[58][59][60][61][62]		 December 30, 1965 February 25, 1986
[8][note 15]
[note 23]</ref>		 20 years, 57 days Nacionalista 1965 Fernando Lopez
[note 24]
1969
[note 25]
[note 26]</ref>
None
[2][note 27]		 Martial law
KBL
1981
[note 28]		 Fourth Republic
[24][note 29]
11 Corazon Aquino
(January 25, 1933 – August 1, 2009)[67][68][63]		 February 25, 1986
[note 30]		 June 30, 1992 6 years, 126 days UNIDO[9] 1986 Salvador Laurel[9]
Fifth Republic
[24][note 31]
Independent
12 Fidel V. Ramos
(born March 18, 1928)
(92 years)[70][71][72]		 June 30, 1992 June 30, 1998 6 years, 0 days Lakas 1992 Joseph Estrada[10]
13 Joseph Estrada
(born April 19, 1937)
(83 years)[73][74][75]		 June 30, 1998 January 20, 2001
[11][note 32]
[note 6]		 2 years, 204 days LAMMP 1998 Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
14 Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
(born April 5, 1947)
(73 years)[77][78][75][79]		 January 20, 2001 June 30, 2010 9 years, 161 days Lakas[12] Vacant
Teofisto Guingona Jr.
2004 Noli de Castro
[note 33]
15 Benigno Aquino III
(born February 8, 1960)
(60 years)[80][81][82]		 June 30, 2010 June 30, 2016 6 years, 0 days Liberal 2010 Jejomar Binay[13]
16 Rodrigo Duterte
(born March 28, 1945)
(75 years)[83]		 June 30, 2016 Incumbent 4 years, 218 days PDP–Laban 2016 Leni Robredo
  1. a Term started with the inauguration of the First Philippine Republic, and ended when Aguinaldo was captured by US forces in Palanan, Isabela, during the Philippine–American War.
  2. a b c The constitution in force didn't provide for a vice president.
  3. a b c Died in office
  4. a b c The constitution in force didn't provide a mechanism for appointment of a vice president in times of vacancy.
  5. a Roxas and Quirino ran as candidates of the "Liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party", this "Liberal wing" later seceded and formed the Liberal Party in 1947.
  6. a The Liberal Party was split into two wings for the 1949 election. Quirino headed primary wing, while Jose Avelino headed the other.
  7. a Lopez won the 1949 vice presidential election as nominee of the Liberal Party. He was later named as vice presidential nominee of the Democratic Party for the 1953 election, but when their presidential candidate Carlos P. Romulo withdrew, he also withdrew to run for a Senate seat instead.
  8. a Marcos was deposed in the People Power Revolution.
  9. a b UNIDO was dissolved in 1987. Aquino nominally was an independent for the rest of her term, while Laurel was an independent, then became the standard bearer of the resurrected Nacionalista Party.
  10. a Estrada was the candidate of the Nationalist People's Coalition in the 1992 vice presidential election, then founded the Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino as his presidential vehicle in 1998.
  11. a Estrada was ruled to have resigned by the Supreme Court during the Second EDSA Revolution.
  12. a Arroyo won the 1998 vice presidential and 2004 presidential election as the nominee of Lakas-NUCD-UMDP. This merged with the Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino (KAMPI), the party Arroyo founded, in 2009, to form Lakas Kampi CMD.
  13. a Binay won the 2010 vice presidential election as nominee of the PDP–Laban, but left the party to become an independent, then founded the United Nationalist Alliance in the run-up to the 2013 Senate election.

Timeline
See also: List of presidents of the Philippines by time in office
Rodrigo DuterteBenigno Aquino IIIGloria Macapagal ArroyoJoseph EstradaFidel RamosCorazon AquinoFerdinand MarcosDiosdado MacapagalCarlos P. GarciaRamon MagsaysayElpidio QuirinoManuel RoxasSergio OsmeñaJosé P. LaurelManuel L. QuezonEmilio Aguinaldo

See also

Notes
  1. The President has three official residences, with the Malacañang Palace Complex as the principal abode and workplace.[1] The other two are Mansion House in Baguio, the official summer residence,[2] and Malacañang sa Sugbo (Malacañang of Cebu), the official residence in Cebu.[3]
  2. In chronological order, the presidents started with Manuel L. Quezon,[21] who was then succeeded by Sergio Osmeña as the second president,[22] until the recognition of Emilio Aguinaldo[23] and José P. Laurel's[16] presidencies in the 1960s.[subnote 1] Aguinaldo was consequently counted as the country's first president.[6][23]
  3. Emilio Aguinaldo, the official first president, was elected by the Malolos Congress and not by popular vote.[10][11]
  4. For the purposes of numbering, a presidency is defined as an uninterrupted period of time in office served by one person. For example, Manuel L. Quezon was elected in two consecutive terms and is counted as the second president (not the second and third).[subnote 3]
  5. Term ended when Aguinaldo was captured by US forces in Palanan, Isabela, during the Philippine–American War.[4][subnote 4]
  6. Later sought election or re-election to a non-consecutive term.[subnote 5]
  7. The Malolos Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[26]
  8. Term began with the formal establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth.[9][subnote 3]
  9. Died, in office, of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York.[18]
  10. Term was originally until 15 Nov 1943, due to constitutional limitations as provided by the 1940 amendment of the 1935 Constitution, which shortened the terms of the president and the vice president from six to four years but allowed re-election.[subnote 5] Quezon was not intended to serve the full four years of the second term he won in the 1941 election because a ten-year presidency would have been considered excessive. In 1943, however, due to World War II, he and Vice President Osmeña, who was also re-elected, had to take an emergency oath of office, extending their tenure.[4][12]
  11. Term began with the establishment of Japan's puppet Second Republic after it occupied the Philippines during World War II.[13][32] The Commonwealth continued its existence as a government in exile in Australia and the United States.[9][33] The Philippines had two concurrent presidents by this time:[4] a de jure (the Commonwealth president) and a de facto (Laurel).[15] Because of his status, he was not considered a legitimate president by the government succeeding the second republic until the 1960s.[16]
  12. Term ended when he dissolved the Second Republic in the wake of Japan's surrender to the Allies two days prior.[16][32][subnote 2] The Commonwealth was re-established in the Philippines,[13] with Sergio Osmeña as the fourth president.[4][subnote 6]
  13. Previously affiliated with the Nacionalista Party,[30] but was elected by the National Assembly under the Japanese-organized KALIBAPI, a "non-political service organization" as it described itself.[34] All pre-war parties were replaced by the KALIBAPI.[13][16]
  14. The 1943 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[26][35]
  15. Unseated (lost re-election).[subnote 5]
  16. Sought an election for a full term, but was unsuccessful.
  17. Prior to the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, there was no mechanism by which a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled.[5][38] Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the first president to fill such a vacancy under the provisions of the Constitution when she appointed Teofisto Guingona Jr.
  18. Died, in office, of a heart attack in Clark Air Base, Pampanga.[19]
  19. The Liberal Party was not yet a party in itself at the time, but only a wing of the Nacionalista Party.[41] It split and became a separate party by 1947.[42]
  20. The Third Republic began when the Philippine Commonwealth ended on 4 July 1946.[4][43]
  21. The Liberal Party was split into two opposing wings for the 1949 election: the Avelino wing, led by presidential aspirant José Avelino, and the Quirino wing.[47]
  22. Died, in office, in a plane crash in Mount Manunggal, Cebu.[20][51]
  23. Deposed in the People Power Revolution.[subnote 7][63] The events led to the People Power Revolution on February 22–25, which forced Marcos to leave to exile in Hawaii and installed Aquino to the office.[64][65][63]
  24. Term ended upon Marcos' declaration of martial law.[26][subnote 8][subnote 9]
  25. Imposed martial law, as a self-coup, on September 23, 1972, through Proclamation No. 1081, shortly before the end of his second and final term in 1973.[subnote 8] General Order No. 1, which detailed the transfer of all powers to the president, was also issued, enabling Marcos to rule by decree.[17]
  26. Served concurrently as prime minister from June 12, 1978 to June 30, 1981.[58][subnote 9] the vice presidency was abolished and the presidential succession provision was devolved to the prime minister.[26]
  27. The 1973 Constitution was amended through a plebiscite held on January 27, 1984 to re-establish the vice presidency.[26][66][subnote 9]
  28. The 1973 Constitution, as amended in 1981, did not place restrictions on re-election.[subnote 5]
  29. Martial law was lifted by Ferdinand Marcos on January 17, 1981 through Proclamation No. 2045,[17] marking the beginning of the Fourth Republic.[43]
  30. Assumed presidency by claiming victory in the disputed 1986 snap election.[subnote 7]
  31. Corazon Aquino promulgated a provisional constitution called the 1986 Freedom Constitution on March 25, 1986.[69] It remained in effect until it was supplanted by the current constitution on February 2, 1987,[69] which ushered the Fifth Republic.[4]
  32. The Supreme Court declared Estrada had resigned and thus vacate the office of the president following the Second EDSA Revolution.[76]
  33. Allied with the Koalisyon ng Katapatan at Karanasan sa Kinabukasan (Coalition of Truth and Experience for Tomorrow).[79]

Subnotes

  1. The Malolos Republic, an independent revolutionary state that is actually the first constitutional republic in Asia, remained unrecognized by any country until the Philippines acknowledged the government as its predecessor, which it also calls the First Philippine Republic.<ref>"Proclamation No. 533, s. 2013". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. January 9, 2013. Retrieved July 25, 2016.
  2. The Second Republic was later declared by the Supreme Court of the Philippines as a de facto, illegitimate government on September 17, 1945. Its laws were considered null and void; despite this, Laurel was included in the official roster of Philippine presidents in the 1960s.
  3. Emilio Aguinaldo would be counted as the second president if he had won the 1935 election because the presidency was abolished and remained defunct until November 15, 1935. During that period, the executive power was exercised by the Governor-General of the US military government and the Insular Government, the precursor of the Philippine Commonwealth.<ref name='Agoncillo281'>Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 281
  4. Aguinaldo took the oath of allegiance to the US nine days later, effectively ending the republic.<ref name='Tuckerp496'>Tucker 2009, p. 496
  5. Before the ratification of the 1981 amendment of the 1973 Constitution, which removed the limit on re-election to the office for another six-year term, presidents were elected to a four-year term with the possibility of re-election, as the amended 1935 Constitution specified: "No person shall serve as [p]resident for more than eight consecutive years." When the 1987 Constitution was imposed and, in effect, superseded the previous constitutions, the president is no longer eligible for any re-election. It does, however, allow a person who had assumed the presidency to seek for a full six-year term if he or she has not yet "served as such for more than four years".<ref name='1987con'>"The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  6. The Commonwealth had already been temporarily restored in Tacloban on October 23, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte, before it was proclaimed "reestablished as provided by law" on February 27, 1945.<ref>MacArthur, Douglas (February 27, 1945). "Speech of General Douglas MacArthur upon turning over to President Sergio Osmena the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government under the Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
  7. Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino both took their oath of office on February 25, 1986. In effect, the Philippines again had two simultaneous presidents, albeit for nine hours only. Marcos was proclaimed on February 15 the winner of the widely denounced February 7 snap election, which he called after opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., his chief rival and Corazon's husband, was assassinated in 1983. However, in a separate NAMFREL tally dated February 16, Aquino was found the actual duly-elected president.<ref>"1986 Tally Board". National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections. February 16, 1986. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
  8. Accounts differ on when martial law was officially established. While sources such as Raymond Bonner have written that Proclamation No. 1081 was signed on September 23, 1972, Primitivo Mijares, a former journalist for Marcos, and the Bangkok Post stated that it was on September 17, only postdated to September 21 because of Marcos' numerological beliefs that were related to the number seven. Marcos claimed to have signed it on September 21, and as of 9 p.m. Philippine Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on September 22, the country was under martial law. He formally announced it in a live television and radio broadcast on September 23. The official date when martial law was set was on September 21 (because it was a date that was divisible by seven), but September 23 is generally considered the correct date because it was when the nation was informed and thus the proclamation was put into full effect.
  9. On January 17, 1973, while martial law was still in effect, the 1973 Constitution was ratified, which suspended the 1935 Constitution and ended the Third Republic. What Marcos called a New Society (Bagong Lipunan) began, introducing a parliamentary form of government;<ref>Sicat, Gerardo P. (September 23, 2015). "Marcos and his failure to provide for an orderly political succession". The Philippine Star. Retrieved July 9, 2016. The transitional nature of the political system according to the 1973 Constitution was left undefined in view of the martial law government. This constitution adopted a British-style parliamentary system.

References
  1. Ortiguero, Romsanne (October 22, 2014). "TRAVEL Inside Malacañang Complex, 3 places to visit for a charming date with history". News5. TV5. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  2. "Mansion House". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  3. Sisante, Jam (August 6, 2010). "Malacañang sa Sugbo still the president's official residence in Cebu". GMA News and Public Affairs. GMA Network. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  4. "The Executive Branch". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  6. Tucker 2009, p. 8
  9. "The Commonwealth of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 8, 2016.
  10. "Emilio Aguinaldo". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  11. PCDSPO 2015, p. 203
  12. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 62–64
  13. Jose, Ricardo T. (1997). Afterword. His Excellency Jose P. Laurel, President of the Second Philippine Republic: Speeches, Messages and Statements, October 14, 1943 to December 19, 1944. By Laurel, José P. Manila: Lyceum of the Philippines in cooperation with the José P. Laurel Memorial Foundation. ISBN 971-91847-2-8. Retrieved June 18, 2016 – via Presidential Museum and Library.
  14. Staff writer(s) (September 3, 1945). "The Philippines: End of a Puppet". Time. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  15. "Today is the birth anniversary of President Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  16. Staff writer(s) (October 14, 2015). "Second Philippine Republic". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
  17. "Declaration of Martial Law". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
  18. Tejero, Constantino C. (November 8, 2015). "The real Manuel Luis Quezon, beyond the posture and bravura". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  19. Staff writer(s) (April 16, 1948). "Heart Attack Fatal to Philippine Pres. Roxas". Schenectady Gazette. Manila. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  20. "Death Anniversary of President Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. March 17, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  21. Quezon, Manuel Luis M. (December 30, 1941). "Second Inaugural Address of President Quezon". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
  22. Staff writer(s) (October 19, 1961). "Sergio Osmena, Second President of the Philippines". Toledo Blade. Manila: Block Communications. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
  23. Pascual, Federico D., Jr. (September 26, 2010). "Macapagal legacy casts shadow on today's issues". The Philippine Star. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
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  25. Formerly the Magdalo faction of the revolutionary society Katipunan.
  26. "Office of the Vice President". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
  27. "Manuel L. Quezon". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  28. PCDSPO 2015, p. 204
  29. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 54–56
  30. "Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  31. PCDSPO 2015, p. 205
  32. PCDSPO 2015, p. 72
  33. Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 415
  34. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 66–67
  35. "The 1943 Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
  36. "Sergio Osmeña". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  37. PCDSPO 2015, p. 206
  38. The 1935 Constitution:
  39. "Manuel Roxas". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  40. PCDSPO 2015, p. 207
  41. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 74–76
  42. PCDSPO 2015, p. 78
  43. "Third Republic". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  44. Staff writer(s) (November 16, 2012). "The ritual climbing of the main stairs of..." Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved July 21, 2016 – via Tumblr. On the morning of April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino–fresh off a coast guard cutter from the Visayas–ascended the staircase to pay his respects to the departed President Manuel Roxas, and to take his oath of office as [p]resident of the Philippines. The country had been without a [p]resident for two days.
  45. "Elpidio Quirino". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  46. PCDSPO 2015, p. 208
  47. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 80–82
  48. "Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  49. PCDSPO 2015, p. 209
  50. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 85–88
  51. Staff writer(s) (March 18, 1957). "Magsaysay Dead in Plane Crash". St. Petersburg Times. Manila: Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  52. "Carlos P. Garcia". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  53. PCDSPO 2015, p. 210
  54. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 91–93
  55. "Diosdado Macapagal". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  56. PCDSPO 2015, p. 211
  57. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 96–98
  58. "Ferdinand E. Marcos". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  59. PCDSPO 2015, p. 212
  60. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 101–104
  61. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 108–110
  62. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 125–126
  63. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 132–134
  66. PCDSPO 2015, p. 130
  67. "Corazon C. Aquino". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  68. PCDSPO 2015, p. 213
  69. "Philippine Constitutions". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
  70. "Fidel V. Ramos". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
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Works cited
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